1. Reign of Aurangzeb (1658–1707)

• The Mughal Empire reached its maximum territorial expansion during Aurangzeb’s reign, but his religious policies, prolonged wars, and depletion of the treasury marked the beginning of its decline.

2. War of Succession (1707–1712)

• After Aurangzeb’s death in 1707, a war of succession broke out between his three sons:

1. Mauzzam (Shah Alam I, later Bahadur Shah I)
2. Azam Shah
3. Kambakhsh

• Mauzzam, the eldest, defeated his brothers and ascended the throne as Bahadur Shah I.

3. Reign of Bahadur Shah I (1707–1712)

• *Conciliatory Policy: He adopted a more conciliatory policy towards the Rajputs and Marathas to maintain peace. He released *Shahu, son of Shambhaji (Maratha leader), which ultimately led to the resurgence of the Marathas as a powerful force.
• *Sikh Revolt: The Sikhs, under *Banda Bahadur, rose in revolt. Though Bahadur Shah suppressed the revolt, Banda escaped and continued to resist.

4. Death of Bahadur Shah I and Another War of Succession (1712–1713)

• After Bahadur Shah I’s death in 1712, a war of succession erupted among his four sons.
• Jahandar Shah secured the throne with the help of Zulfiqar Khan but was soon defeated and killed by his nephew Farrukhsiyar.

5. Reign of Farrukhsiyar (1713–1719)

• *Weak Ruler: Farrukhsiyar was weak and left governance to the *Sayyid Brothers (Sayyid Abdullah and Sayyid Hussain), who became the de facto rulers.
• Banda Bahadur’s Revolt: Banda Bahadur rose in rebellion again and was captured and executed in 1716.
• Farrukhsiyar’s Death: The Sayyid Brothers, in alliance with the Marathas, deposed and killed Farrukhsiyar in 1719.

6. Muhammad Shah (1719–1748)

• Rise of Muhammad Shah Rangeela: A weak and pleasure-loving ruler, he managed to get rid of the Sayyid Brothers.
• *Invasion of Nadir Shah (1739): The Mughal Empire faced a significant blow when **Nadir Shah, ruler of Persia, invaded and sacked Delhi, taking immense wealth, including the *Peacock Throne and Koh-i-Noor diamond.

7. Sikh Uprisings

• Sikhism and the Gurus:
• Guru Nanak was the founder of Sikhism, born in 1459 in Talwandi (now Nankana Sahib, Pakistan).
• Guru Arjun compiled the Granth Sahib and built the Golden Temple in Amritsar. His execution by Jahangir triggered the militarization of the Sikhs.
• The tenth guru, *Guru Gobinda Singh, founded the *Khalsa in 1699 (symbolized by the “five Ks”: *Kesh, **Kanga, **Kara, **Kachha, **Kirpan). He was assassinated in *1708 in Nander (Maharashtra).
• Banda Bahadur, appointed by Guru Gobinda Singh, led the Sikhs against the Mughal Empire and was eventually executed by Farrukhsiyar.

8. Decline Under Later Mughals

• After Muhammad Shah, the empire faced rapid decline:
• Ahmad Shah Abdali (Durrani), a former officer of Nadir Shah, invaded India multiple times, defeating the Marathas in the Third Battle of Panipat (1761).
• *Shah Alam II (1759–1806): He granted Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa to the *East India Company in 1765, signaling the growing influence of the British.

9. Rise of Independent States

• *Hyderabad: Founded by *Mir Qamar-ud-din (Chin Qilich Khan) as the Nizam of Hyderabad in 1724.
• *Oudh (Awadh): Founded by *Saadat Khan (Mir Muhammad Amin) as an independent state.

10. Last Mughal Emperor

• *Bahadur Shah II (1837–1857): The last Mughal ruler, confined to Delhi’s Red Fort. He was a nominal ruler during the *Indian Rebellion of 1857 (also called the Mutiny).
• After the rebellion, Bahadur Shah II was exiled to Rangoon (now Yangon, Myanmar), where he died in 1862.

11. Reasons for Decline of the Mughal Empire

• Incapable leadership after Aurangzeb.
• Frequent wars of succession due to no clear law of succession.
• Deterioration of nobility and internal divisions.
• Military inefficiency and lack of patriotism.
• Financial strain due to prolonged wars.
• Vast territorial expansion made administration difficult.
• Continuous invasions (Nadir Shah, Ahmad Shah Abdali) and internal revolts (Marathas, Sikhs, Jats).

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Social Conditions:

1. Clothing: Wool was preferred over cotton during this period. The Mughals contributed to Indian fashion by introducing the popular headwear called Pagri.
2. Slavery: Slavery was widespread and accepted during this time.
3. Wealth: According to Hawkins, who visited India during Jahangir’s reign, “India is rich in silver and gold.”

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Economic Conditions:

1. Agriculture: Agriculture was the most important industry in India, and the Mughal emperors encouraged its development. The state’s chief source of income came from land revenue.
2. Industries: The most significant industry during the Mughal era was the manufacture of cotton cloth.

• Dacca was famous for its muslin fabric.
• Bengal also had a thriving silk weaving industry.
• Shawl and carpet weaving industries flourished in Lahore and Kashmir.

1. Trade: The principal ports were Surat, Broach, Cambay, Calicut, Chittagong, Sonargaon (Bengal), and Cochin.

• Major exports included textiles, pepper, indigo, opium, and other goods.

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Religious Movements:

1. Bhakti Movement: The influence of Islam brought changes in Hinduism, leading to the rise of the Bhakti Movement, which emphasized true devotion to God.
2. Din-e-Ilahi: This doctrine of religious tolerance was introduced by Akbar.
3. Mahdavi Movement: Initiated by Sayyid Muhammad of Jaunpur (False Mahdi), it was crushed at the fatwa of Shaikh Makhdum-ul-Mulk.
4. Opposition to Din-e-Ilahi: Prominent figures who opposed it included Baqi Billah and Sheikh Ahmed Sirhindi (Mujaddid-alif-Sani), belonging to the Naqshbandia School.
5. Shah Waliullah: Shah Waliullah (1703-1762) was a pivotal figure in the religious awakening of Muslims in the Indian subcontinent. He invited Ahmad Shah Abdali to invade India and fought against the Marathas. He was the first to translate the Holy Quran into Persian.

• His son Shah Abdul Aziz continued his work, followed by Syed Ahmed Shaheed after Shah Abdul Aziz’s death in 1823.

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Education and Literature:

1. Educational Institutions: Akbar established a college at Fatehpur Sikri.
2. Women Scholars: Distinguished female writers include:

• Gulbadan Begum (Humayun’s sister), who wrote Humayunnama.
• Salima Sultana, Nur Jahan, Mumtaz Mahal, and Zeb-un-Nisa.

1. Famous Writers:

• Mulla Daud (Tarikh-i-Afifi).
• Abul Fazl (Ain-i-Akbari, Akbarnama).
• Badauni (Muntakhabut-Tawarikh, Tabakat-i-Akbari, Akbarnama).
• Padshahnama by Abdul Hamid Lahori.
• Fatwa-i-Alamgiri by Aurangzeb.

1. Prominent Poets:

• Abdur Rehman Khan-i-Khanan (Akbar’s court).
• Surdas, the blind poet of Agra.
• Tulsi Das (Ramcharitmanas).

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Architecture:

1. Babur: Constructed the Jami Masjid at Sambhal.
2. Humayun: Built the Din Panah Palace in Delhi.
3. Sher Shah Suri: Built his Mausoleum at Sasaram and the Purana Qila.
4. Akbar: Major constructions included:

• Jama Masjid at Fatehpur Sikri.
• Tomb at Sikandra (completed by Jahangir).
• Agra Fort, Lahore Fort, Diwan-i-Aam, and Diwan-i-Khas.

1. Shah Jahan: Introduced marble and pietra dura in architecture. His most notable works:

• Taj Mahal (22 years for completion).
• Moti Masjid at Agra.
• Jama Masjid at Delhi.
• Peacock Throne.

1. Aurangzeb: Constructed the Badshahi Mosque in Lahore and a marble mosque at the Delhi Fort.

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Paintings:

1. Humayun Era: Mir Sayyid Ali and Khawaja Abdus Samad were prominent painters.
2. Jahangir Era: Art of painting reached its peak. Thomas Roe praised it, with notable painters like Farrukh Beg and Muhammad Nadir.

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Music:

1. Akbar’s Era:

• The most famous musician was Mian Tansen from Gwalior.
• Ram Das was considered second only to Tansen.

1. Shah Jahan’s Court:

• The chief musician was Lal Khan, Tansen’s son-in-law.

1. Aurangzeb: He discouraged music during his reign.

• Territorial Expansion: The Mughal Empire reached its maximum territorial size, extending from the Deccan Plateau in the south to Kashmir in the north, and from Bengal in the east to Afghanistan in the west.
• Religious Policies: Aurangzeb’s policies were highly conservative and orthodox, enforcing Islamic laws (Sharia), demolishing Hindu temples, reimposing the jizya tax on non-Muslims, and enforcing a strict moral code that alienated his non-Muslim subjects, especially Hindus and Sikhs.
• Prolonged Wars: His prolonged military campaigns in the Deccan against the Marathas, Sikhs, and other regional powers drained the empire’s resources.
• Decline of Treasury: Continuous warfare and expensive campaigns depleted the treasury, weakening the empire’s financial stability and contributing to its decline.

2. War of Succession (1707–1712)

• After Aurangzeb’s death, his three sons—Mauzzam, Azam Shah, and Kambakhsh—fought for the throne.
• Mauzzam (Bahadur Shah I): The eldest son, known for being pragmatic and experienced in administration, ultimately defeated his brothers and became emperor.
• Azam Shah: A short-lived contender, defeated by Mauzzam.
• Kambakhsh: The youngest son, who also vied for power but was defeated in the end.

3. Reign of Bahadur Shah I (1707–1712)

• Conciliatory Policy: He adopted a more tolerant approach, attempting to repair the divisions caused by his father’s harsh policies. He sought alliances with the Rajputs, Marathas, and Sikhs to stabilize his rule.
• Release of Shahu: By releasing Shahu, the son of the Maratha leader Sambhaji, he inadvertently strengthened the Marathas, who would later challenge Mughal dominance.
• Sikh Revolt: The Sikhs, under Banda Bahadur, rose against Mughal authority. Bahadur Shah initially suppressed the revolt, but Banda continued his resistance, rallying many Sikhs to his cause.

4. Death of Bahadur Shah I and Another War of Succession (1712–1713)

• Following Bahadur Shah I’s death, a violent succession struggle erupted among his four sons: Jahandar Shah, Azim-ush-Shan, Rafi-us-Shan, and Jahan Shah.
• Jahandar Shah: Emerged victorious with the help of his powerful minister, Zulfiqar Khan, but his reign was marked by debauchery and incompetence.
• Farrukhsiyar: Jahandar Shah was eventually defeated by his nephew Farrukhsiyar, who, with the support of the Sayyid Brothers, seized the throne.

5. Reign of Farrukhsiyar (1713–1719)

• Weak Ruler: Farrukhsiyar’s reign was marred by his indecisiveness and dependence on the Sayyid Brothers (Sayyid Abdullah and Sayyid Hussain), who effectively controlled the empire.
• Banda Bahadur’s Revolt: Banda Bahadur continued to challenge Mughal authority, capturing several territories before being captured and executed in 1716.
• Farrukhsiyar’s Death: The Sayyid Brothers, growing weary of Farrukhsiyar’s attempts to break free from their control, orchestrated his deposition and assassination in 1719.

6. Muhammad Shah (1719–1748)

• Muhammad Shah Rangeela: Known for his indulgence in luxury and pleasure, he managed to rid himself of the Sayyid Brothers but failed to strengthen the empire.
• Invasion of Nadir Shah (1739): Nadir Shah, the Persian ruler, invaded India in 1739, defeating the Mughal army at Karnal. He sacked Delhi, causing massive destruction and looting wealth, including the famous Peacock Throne and Koh-i-Noor diamond. This invasion severely weakened the Mughal Empire’s prestige and treasury.

7. Sikh Uprisings

• Guru Nanak: The founder of Sikhism, born in 1469 at Talwandi (now Nankana Sahib, Pakistan). He preached equality, monotheism, and the rejection of caste discrimination.
• Guru Arjun: The fifth Sikh Guru, who compiled the Granth Sahib and built the Golden Temple. His execution by Emperor Jahangir marked a turning point for the Sikhs, leading to their militarization.
• Guru Gobind Singh: The tenth and last Sikh Guru, who founded the Khalsa in 1699, creating a distinct Sikh identity characterized by the “five Ks” (Kesh, Kanga, Kara, Kachha, Kirpan). He was assassinated in 1708, but his legacy lived on through the Khalsa.
• Banda Bahadur: Appointed by Guru Gobind Singh, Banda Bahadur led the Sikhs against the Mughals, establishing Sikh rule in parts of Punjab before being captured and executed.

8. Decline Under Later Mughals

• Ahmad Shah Abdali (Durrani): A former officer of Nadir Shah, he invaded India multiple times, significantly weakening the Mughal authority. His victory over the Marathas in the Third Battle of Panipat (1761) marked a major blow to regional power dynamics.
• Shah Alam II (1759–1806): Known for his weak leadership, he was forced to grant Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa to the East India Company in 1765, marking the growing influence of the British in India.

9. Rise of Independent States

• Hyderabad: Established by Mir Qamar-ud-din (Chin Qilich Khan) in 1724 as an independent state, becoming one of the most powerful and prosperous regions in southern India.
• Oudh (Awadh): Founded by Saadat Khan, it emerged as a significant power in northern India, maintaining relative independence while nominally recognizing Mughal authority.

10. Last Mughal Emperor

• Bahadur Shah II (1837–1857): The last Mughal ruler, a symbolic figure during the Indian Rebellion of 1857 (the Mutiny). After the British crushed the rebellion, Bahadur Shah II was exiled to Rangoon, Burma (now Yangon, Myanmar), where he died in 1862.

11. Reasons for the Decline of the Mughal Empire

• Incapable Leadership: Successors of Aurangzeb were often weak, indecisive, and ineffective rulers who could not handle the complexities of governance.
• Wars of Succession: The lack of a clear law of succession led to frequent, bloody wars for the throne, weakening the empire’s stability.
• Deterioration of Nobility: The Mughal nobility, once the backbone of the empire, became corrupt, divided, and self-serving, contributing to administrative breakdown.
• Military Inefficiency: The Mughal army, once formidable, became outdated, poorly equipped, and ineffective against modern, well-trained European forces like the British.
• Financial Strain: Prolonged wars, excessive spending on court luxuries, and the decline in agricultural productivity due to neglect strained the imperial treasury.
• Administrative Overreach: The vast territorial expansion made it challenging to govern effectively, leading to rebellions and loss of control in many regions.
• Foreign Invasions and Internal Revolts: Repeated invasions by Nadir Shah and Ahmad Shah Abdali, along with internal revolts by Marathas, Sikhs, and Jats, eroded Mughal authority.
• Rise of Regional Powers: The emergence of independent states like Hyderabad, Awadh, and Bengal further fragmented the empire, as these regions asserted autonomy and power.

1. Coronation and Reign (1659 Onward)

• Formal Coronation (5th June 1659): Aurangzeb delayed his formal coronation to assert his legitimacy as the ruler after defeating his brothers in a bloody war of succession. This move marked the beginning of one of the longest reigns in Mughal history, lasting nearly 50 years.
• Restoration of Mughal Calendar: Aurangzeb restored the traditional Mughal lunar calendar and ended the “Din-i-Ilahi” era, a syncretic religion created by Akbar. This was symbolic of his return to orthodox Islamic practices.

2. Division of Aurangzeb’s Reign

• First Half of His Reign (1658-1681) – Northern India:
• During this period, Aurangzeb primarily focused on consolidating his rule in the northern part of India, facing challenges from various regions like the North-West Frontier and the Eastern regions.
• The most significant of these challenges came from the Ahoms, the Afghan tribes, and the Sikhs. His political and military campaigns were often centered around maintaining control over these regions and containing internal dissent.
• Campaigns Against the Ahoms:

  • The Ahoms, originally from Burma, had captured parts of Assam and the Brahmaputra Valley. In 1662, Aurangzeb sent Mir Jumla, the Governor of Bengal, to suppress them. Mir Jumla successfully captured large territories, but with the advent of the monsoon season, the Ahoms regained power. Mir Jumla fell ill and died in 1663, leaving his campaign incomplete.
  • Shaista Khan’s Role in the East: After Mir Jumla’s death, Shaista Khan, his son, was tasked with conquering Chittagong from the Arakanese king, which was successfully done in 1666, leading to the region being renamed Islamabad.

• Rebellion of the North-West Frontier Tribes:

  • The Afghan tribes on the North-West frontier, such as the Yusufzais and Afridis, proved to be an ongoing source of rebellion. In 1667, Bhagu Yusufzai led a revolt, which Aurangzeb suppressed. However, the Afridi rebellion in 1672, under Ajmal Khan, was more serious. Aurangzeb’s initial attempt to suppress the rebellion led by Muhammad Amin Khan ended in failure, particularly at the Battle of Ali Masjid.
  • Hasan Abdal Campaign (1674-1675): This failure prompted Aurangzeb to take charge himself. He personally directed the campaign from Hasan Abdal, and by the end of 1675, the situation had improved.

• Revolts in Mathura:

  • In 1669, the Jats of Mathura revolted after Aurangzeb’s officer, Sayyid Abdun Nabi, constructed a mosque in the Hindu-majority city. The Jats killed Abdun Nabi and desecrated the tomb of Akbar at Sikandarabad. Aurangzeb retaliated harshly against the Jats, leading to brutal suppression of the rebellion.

3. Second Half of His Reign (1682-1707) – The Deccan Campaign

• The Maratha Uprising:
• The Marathas, under Shivaji, were one of the most significant threats to the Mughal Empire. Shivaji was a formidable opponent who conducted guerilla warfare with his hillmen called Mawalis.
• In 1663, Shivaji raided Shaista Khan’s camp, killing his son and many Mughal soldiers. His successful campaigns continued throughout the 1670s, and by 1674, he was crowned king at Raigarh, establishing a powerful Maratha kingdom.
• Post-Shivaji Period: After Shivaji’s death in 1680, his son Shambhuji took up the struggle. However, Shambhuji was captured and executed in 1689. Despite this, the Marathas continued to resist under Rajaram and later, Shivaji III under Tara Bai.
• Conquests of Bijapur and Golkonda:
• In 1686, Aurangzeb defeated Sultan Adil Shah II of Bijapur, and in 1687, he conquered Golkonda, ending the rule of the Qutb Shahi dynasty.
• A Political Blunder? Many historians argue that the conquest of Bijapur and Golkonda was a strategic mistake as these states could have served as buffers against the rising power of the Marathas.
• Height of Power and Beginning of Decline (1696 Onwards):
• By 1696, Aurangzeb had reached the pinnacle of his power, having subdued much of South India. However, this period also marked the beginning of the empire’s decline due to the endless wars in the Deccan and growing internal instability.
• Aurangzeb’s final years were spent fighting the Marathas in an ultimately futile effort to fully subdue them.

4. Religious Policies

• Jizya Tax and Religious Conservatism:
• Aurangzeb’s imposition of the Jizya tax on non-Muslim subjects in 1679 marked a sharp departure from the more liberal religious policies of his predecessors like Akbar. This decision alienated a large portion of his subjects, contributing to the disintegration of the empire.
• Sikh Rebellion:
• Guru Tej Bahadur, the ninth Sikh Guru, was executed by Aurangzeb in 1675 for raising the banner of revolt. This act led to further conflict between the Sikhs and the Mughal Empire under Guru Gobind Singh, the tenth and last Sikh Guru, who organized the Sikh community militarily.

5. Architectural Contributions

Despite Aurangzeb’s conservative approach, he did contribute to Mughal architecture, although his reign was not as architecturally productive as that of his predecessors:

• Bibi ka Maqbara (Tomb of Dilras Banu Begum): Built in memory of his wife in Aurangabad in 1661, this monument bears a striking resemblance to the Taj Mahal, though on a smaller scale.
• Badshahi Mosque (1673): Located in Lahore, this mosque is one of the largest in the world and remains a major architectural legacy of Aurangzeb’s reign.

6. Major Figures of Aurangzeb’s Time

• Mir Jumla and Shaista Khan: Governors of Bengal, both played crucial roles in Aurangzeb’s campaigns against the Ahoms and Arakanese.
• Shivaji: The Maratha leader, who was the most significant challenger to Aurangzeb’s rule, remains a major figure in Indian history for his resistance against Mughal domination.
• Guru Gobind Singh: The last Sikh Guru who organized the Khalsa and continued the struggle against Mughal oppression.
• Prince Akbar: Aurangzeb’s rebellious son, who allied with the Marathas, further complicating the political scenario in the Deccan.

7. Failures of Aurangzeb’s Reign

As J.N. Sarkar famously said, “If the Spanish ulcer ruined Napoleon, the Deccan ulcer ruined Aurangzeb.” The long and draining wars in the Deccan were the primary reason for Aurangzeb’s failure. Additionally, the following factors contributed to the Mughal Empire’s decline:

• Unwieldy and Inefficient Army: The Mughal military was too large, inefficient, and outdated.
• Corruption and Rivalry among Generals: The empire’s leadership was fractured by internal rivalries and corruption.
• Guerrilla Tactics of the Marathas: The Marathas’ hit-and-run tactics wore down the Mughal forces over time.
• Natural Disasters: Frequent famines, floods, and pestilence further weakened the empire.

2. The War of Independence 1857

• Causes: The rebellion was sparked by British policies, including annexations, heavy taxation, religious interference, and the use of greased cartridges in rifles, which offended both Hindus and Muslims.
• Events: It started in Meerut and spread across northern India, with major centers like Delhi, Kanpur, and Lucknow witnessing heavy fighting.
• Impacts: The revolt was brutally suppressed, leading to the end of the Mughal Empire and direct British rule over India.
• Failure: Lack of unity among Indian leaders, better British resources, and the betrayal of some Indian rulers led to its failure.
• Effects on Muslims: Muslims were blamed more for the rebellion, which led to their further marginalization. British policies became harsher, pushing Muslims to reconsider their political and social strategies.

3. Sir Syed Ahmad Khan and the Aligarh Movement

• Sir Syed’s Contributions:

  • Social: Advocated for the upliftment of Muslims and urged them to accept modernity.
  • Political: Promoted loyalty to the British to protect Muslim interests and encouraged political awareness.
  • Educational: Founded the Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental College (later Aligarh Muslim University) to modernize Muslim education.
  • Religious: Argued for a rational approach to Islam, reconciling religious beliefs with modern science and ideas.

• Urdu-Hindi Controversy: The British decision to replace Urdu with Hindi in the United Provinces alienated Muslims, contributing to the rise of the Two-Nation Theory, which later became the basis for Pakistan.

4. Religious & Educational Movements and Institutions of the Muslims

• Dar-ul-Uloom Deoband: A movement focused on preserving Islamic teachings and opposing British influence.
• Tehrik-i-Mujahideen: Aimed at reviving Islamic practices and resisting British rule.
• Hur Movement: A nationalist movement against British colonialism in Sindh.
• Tehrik-i-Rashmi Romal: A revolutionary effort led by Maulana Mahmood ul Hasan to organize anti-British resistance.
• Nadva-Tul-Ulama Lucknow: Aimed at balancing traditional Islamic education with modern knowledge.
• Anjuman Himayat-e-Islam: A Lahore-based organization for the welfare of Muslims through education.
• Sindh Madrasa-tul-Islam Karachi: Provided modern education to Muslim students.
• Islamia College, Peshawar: A prominent institution for the education of Muslims in the North-West Frontier Province (NWFP).

5. Hindu Revivalist Movements

• Arya Samaj: Founded by Swami Dayanand Saraswati, it sought to revive ancient Hindu practices and oppose Muslim influence.
• Brahmo Samaj: A reform movement initiated by Raja Ram Mohan Roy, focusing on monotheism and social reform within Hinduism.
• Theosophical Society: Promoted spiritual unity and the study of ancient religions, including Hinduism.
• Ramakrishna Mission: Established by Swami Vivekananda, it aimed at the spiritual and social upliftment of Indians.

6. Indian National Congress (INC)

• Formation: The INC was established in 1885 to give Indians a platform to discuss political issues with the British.
• Indian Council Act of 1892: Provided limited representation for Indians in legislative councils but failed to satisfy Muslim demands for greater political participation.
• Impact on Muslims: Muslims felt underrepresented and excluded from the INC’s largely Hindu-dominated platform, pushing them toward separate political representation.

7. Syed Ameer Ali

• Early Life: Born in 1849 in India, he was a prominent Muslim thinker, jurist, and politician.
• Central Muhammadan Association: Founded by Ameer Ali to promote Muslim political and educational interests.
• Services for Muslims: Played a key role in securing separate political representation for Muslims and advocated for their rights in British India.

8. Urdu Defence Movement

• Nawab Mohsin-ul-Mulk and Nawab Viqar-ul-Mulk: Led efforts to defend Urdu against attempts to replace it with Hindi in the United Provinces.
• Muhammadan Political Organization: Formed to promote Muslim interests and protect the status of Urdu as a symbol of Muslim identity.

9. Partition of Bengal – 1905

• Causes: The British divided Bengal for administrative convenience, creating East Bengal with a Muslim majority.
• Swadeshi Movement: Hindu opposition led to a boycott of British goods and increased Hindu nationalism.
• Impact on Muslims: Muslims welcomed the partition, seeing it as a step toward political empowerment.
• Annulment: Hindu agitation led to the reversal of the partition in 1911, which deeply disappointed Muslims.

10. Formation of All India Muslim League – 1906

• Simla Deputation: A group of Muslim leaders presented demands for separate electorates and political safeguards to the British.
• Formation of Muslim League: Established in Dhaka to represent Muslim interests and advocate for political rights.
• Objectives: Safeguard Muslim political interests, promote loyalty to the British, and protect Muslim culture.

11. Minto-Morley Reforms 1909

• Salient Features:

  • Introduced separate electorates for Muslims.
  • Expanded legislative councils, allowing more Indian participation.

• Impact: The reforms were a step toward self-governance but also institutionalized communal divisions between Hindus and Muslims.

12. Hindu-Muslim Unity

• Lucknow Pact 1916: An agreement between the INC and the Muslim League to work together for constitutional reforms, recognizing separate electorates.
• Rowlatt Act: Gave the British powers to suppress political dissent, sparking widespread protests.
• Jallianwala Bagh Massacre: British troops killed hundreds of unarmed civilians, deepening the resentment against British rule.
• Ali Brothers and Khilafat Movement: Aimed at protecting the Ottoman Caliphate, supported by both Muslims and Hindus.
• Tehrik-i-Tarak-i-Mawalat: A movement for boycotting British goods.
• Movement for Separation of Sindh: Muslims in Sindh demanded a separate province from Bombay to safeguard their political interests.

13. Dyarchy System and its Failure

• Government of India Act 1919: Introduced a dual system of government (dyarchy) in provinces, with some powers given to elected Indian ministers.
• Failure: The system was ineffective as real power remained with British officials.

14. Constitutional Developments upto 1935

• Delhi Proposals: Muslim League’s demand for constitutional reforms in favor of Muslims.
• Simon Commission: A British commission to review Indian governance, but it had no Indian members, leading to protests.
• Nehru Report: A Congress-led proposal that rejected separate electorates, which was opposed by Muslims.
• Quaid-i-Azam’s Fourteen Points: Jinnah’s demand for Muslim political rights.
• Allama Iqbal’s 1930 Allahabad Address: Called for an independent Muslim state in northwest India.
• Round Table Conferences: A series of meetings in London to discuss India’s constitutional future.
• Communal Award: British decision to grant separate electorates to various communities.
• Poona Pact: An agreement between Gandhi and Ambedkar on electoral representation for Dalits.

15. Government of India Act 1935

• Salient Features: Introduced provincial autonomy, expanded the electorate, and established a federal structure for India.
• Impact: It laid the groundwork for the eventual partition of India by recognizing the distinct political aspirations of different communities.

16. Congress Ministries

• 1937 Elections: Congress won in several provinces and formed governments.
• Attitude Towards Muslims: Congress ministries were seen as discriminatory, leading to widespread discontent among Muslims.
• Pirpur and Sharif Reports: Documented the injustices Muslims faced under Congress rule.

17. Demand for a Separate Muslim State

• Kheri Brothers’ Proposals (1917): Suggested constitutional safeguards for Muslims.
• Chaudhry Rahmat Ali’s Proposals (1933): Coined the term “Pakistan” and proposed a separate Muslim state.
• Sindh Provincial Muslim League (1938): Passed a resolution demanding a separate Muslim state.

18. The Demand for Pakistan: 1940-1947

• Lahore Resolution 1940: Called for independent states for Muslims in northwestern and eastern India.
• August Offer: British attempt to placate Indian demands during WWII.
• Cripps Proposal 1942: Offered India dominion status after the war, but it was rejected.
• Quit India Movement 1942: A mass movement led by Gandhi demanding an end to British rule.
• Gandhi-Jinnah Talks 1944: Failed negotiations on the future of India.
• Wavell Plan 1945: Suggested a reformed executive council, but it failed.
• 1945-46 Elections: The Muslim League’s victory solidified the demand for Pakistan.
• Cabinet Mission Plan 1946: Proposed a federal structure for India but was ultimately rejected.
• Direct Action Day 1946: Muslim League called for demonstrations to demand Pakistan, leading to violence.
• Formation of Interim Government: Included members from both Congress and the Muslim League.
• Attlee’s Announcement February 1947: The British prime minister announced that India would be granted independence by June 1948.
• Mountbatten and June 3rd Plan: Partition of India into two independent nations, India and Pakistan, in August 1947.

1. 1857: War of Independence (Indian Rebellion)

• The British East India Company’s oppressive policies, along with economic exploitation, led to the revolt.
• After its suppression, the British Crown took direct control of India, dissolving the East India Company.
• This marked a significant shift in Muslim attitudes, leading to growing resentment and a sense of alienation.

2. 1867: Hindi-Urdu Controversy

• In the United Provinces (now Uttar Pradesh), a demand was made to replace Urdu with Hindi as the court language.
• This sparked tensions between Hindus and Muslims, increasing the need for Muslims to seek separate political identity.

3. 1875: Establishment of Aligarh Movement

• Sir Syed Ahmed Khan founded the Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental College (later Aligarh Muslim University) in Aligarh.
• He advocated for modern education and a pro-British policy to safeguard Muslim interests.
• His emphasis on Muslim socio-political awakening laid the foundation for the future Pakistan Movement.

4. 1885: Formation of Indian National Congress (INC)

• The INC was formed primarily by Hindu elites, initially to represent all Indians but soon dominated by Hindus.
• Muslims felt underrepresented, leading them to look for separate political safeguards.

5. 1905: Partition of Bengal

• The British partitioned Bengal into East Bengal (with a Muslim majority) and West Bengal (Hindu majority).
• Muslims saw this as beneficial for their political standing, but Hindus opposed it.
• The partition was annulled in 1911, which disillusioned many Muslims.

6. 1906: Formation of All India Muslim League (AIML)

• Founded in Dhaka by prominent Muslim leaders to safeguard Muslim interests and promote loyalty to the British government.
• Agha Khan III was its first president.
• The League eventually became the primary political vehicle for the Pakistan Movement.

7. 1909: Morley-Minto Reforms (Separate Electorates)

• Muslims were granted separate electorates, allowing them to elect their own representatives in councils.
• This furthered the idea of political separateness between Hindus and Muslims.

8. 1913: Jinnah Joins the Muslim League

• Muhammad Ali Jinnah, who was initially a member of the INC, joined the Muslim League.
• Jinnah worked towards Hindu-Muslim unity and constitutional reforms.

9. 1916: Lucknow Pact

• An agreement between the INC and Muslim League, in which both agreed to present a united front to demand self-rule from the British.
• It also recognized separate electorates for Muslims, securing political safeguards for the Muslim minority.

10. 1919: Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms

• Introduced limited self-governance but did not satisfy Indian aspirations for complete self-rule.
• The Rowlatt Act, which allowed detention without trial, led to the Jallianwala Bagh Massacre, fueling anger against British rule.

11. 1920: Khilafat Movement

• Launched by Muslims in India to protest the disbandment of the Ottoman Caliphate after World War I.
• Mahatma Gandhi supported the movement, and this marked a temporary alliance between Hindus and Muslims.

12. 1928: Nehru Report

• The INC’s proposal for a future constitution for India, which rejected separate electorates and other Muslim demands.
• The Muslim League rejected the report, leading to a growing divide between Hindus and Muslims.

13. 1929: Jinnah’s Fourteen Points

• Jinnah presented his Fourteen Points to counter the Nehru Report.
• These points outlined demands for Muslim political rights, including separate electorates and autonomy for provinces.
• This became a blueprint for Muslim demands leading up to the Pakistan Movement.

14. 1930: Allahabad Address by Allama Iqbal

• Allama Muhammad Iqbal, in his famous speech, proposed the idea of an independent Muslim state in northwestern India.
• This is seen as the first formal articulation of the demand for a separate Muslim homeland.

15. 1935: Government of India Act

• Introduced provincial autonomy and expanded legislative councils, but fell short of giving full self-rule.
• This led to the participation of the Muslim League in elections, although the League performed poorly in the 1937 provincial elections.

16. 1937: Muslim League’s Poor Performance in Elections

• The Muslim League won few seats in the 1937 provincial elections, highlighting the need for better organization and leadership.
• The Congress Party’s decision to not form coalition governments with the League in certain provinces alienated Muslims.

17. 1940: Lahore Resolution (Pakistan Resolution)

• At the Muslim League session in Lahore, the Lahore Resolution was passed, calling for “independent states” for Muslims in the north-west and east of India.
• This resolution laid the foundation for the demand for Pakistan.

18. 1942: Cripps Mission

• The British government sent the Cripps Mission to offer Indians dominion status after World War II, but the proposal was rejected by both the INC and the Muslim League.

19. 1942: Quit India Movement

• Launched by the INC, this movement called for an end to British rule in India.
• The Muslim League did not support the movement, furthering the rift between the League and Congress.

20. 1944: Gandhi-Jinnah Talks

• Mahatma Gandhi and Jinnah met to negotiate a settlement between the INC and Muslim League, but the talks failed.
• The main point of contention was Jinnah’s demand for a separate Muslim state.

21. 1946: Cabinet Mission Plan

• A British proposal to keep India united but with a decentralized government giving autonomy to provinces.
• While the Muslim League initially accepted the plan, it later rejected it when it became clear the INC wouldn’t agree to full autonomy for Muslim-majority provinces.

22. 1946: Direct Action Day

• The Muslim League called for Direct Action Day to demonstrate its demand for Pakistan, which led to widespread communal riots in Bengal and other parts of India.
• This further heightened Hindu-Muslim tensions.

23. 1947: Partition of India

• The British, led by Lord Mountbatten, announced the decision to partition India into two independent dominions: India and Pakistan.
• Pakistan was formed on August 14, 1947, consisting of East Bengal, West Punjab, Sindh, Balochistan, and the North-West Frontier Province (NWFP).
• The partition led to mass migrations and violence between Hindus, Muslims, and Sikhs.

1. Rashidun Caliphate (632–661 CE)

• Established after the death of Prophet Muhammad with Abu Bakr as the first caliph.
• Rapid expansion into Byzantine and Sassanian territories.
• Major battles: Battle of Yarmouk against Byzantines and Battle of Qadisiyyah against Persians.
• Key figures: Abu Bakr, Umar ibn al-Khattab, Uthman ibn Affan, and Ali ibn Abi Talib.
• Administrative reforms and compilation of the Quran.
• Internal strife: Emergence of the first Fitna (Islamic civil war) leading to the establishment of the Umayyad Caliphate.
• Cultural and political legacy influencing early Islamic governance and jurisprudence.

2. Umayyad Caliphate (661–750 CE)

• First Umayyad caliph: Muawiya I, who established the dynasty.
• Capital moved from Medina to Damascus.
• Expansion into Spain (al-Andalus), North Africa, and Central Asia.
• Administrative reforms: Development of a bureaucratic system and coinage.
• Cultural achievements: Flourishing of Islamic art and architecture, including the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem.
• Internal conflicts: Rising discontent among non-Arab Muslims and Shi’a Muslims.
• End: Overthrown by the Abbasids after the Battle of the Zab.

3. Abbasid Caliphate (750–1258 CE)

• Established by the Abbasid family, claiming descent from Muhammad’s uncle Abbas.
• Capital shifted to Baghdad, which became a major cultural and intellectual center.
• Golden Age of Islam: Significant advancements in science, mathematics, medicine, and philosophy.
• Key figures: Harun al-Rashid and Al-Ma’mun, known for patronizing scholars.
• Decline: Fragmentation into various regional dynasties and the rise of the Seljuk Turks.
• Mongol invasion: Baghdad fell in 1258, marking the end of the Abbasid caliphate.

4. Ghaznavid Dynasty (977–1186 CE)

• Founded by Sabuktigin and expanded by his son Mahmud.
• Capital: Ghazni, in modern-day Afghanistan.
• Military campaigns: Notable invasions into India, including the sacking of Somnath Temple.
• Cultural impact: Promotion of Persian culture and literature.
• Decline: Weakened by internal strife and external pressures, eventually succeeded by the Ghurids.

5. Ghurid Dynasty (879–1215 CE)

• Origins: Emerged from the region of Ghor, in modern-day Afghanistan.
• Expansion: Significant conquests in India, including the capture of Delhi.
• Key figure: Muhammad of Ghor, who laid the foundation for the Delhi Sultanate.
• Cultural and administrative contributions: Integration of Persian administrative practices in India.
• Decline: Disintegration due to internal conflicts and the rise of the Khilji Dynasty.

6. Delhi Sultanate (1206–1526 CE)

• Mamluk Dynasty (1206–1290 CE)
• Founded by Qutb al-Din Aibak, a former slave of Muhammad of Ghor.
• Establishment of Delhi as a major power center.
• Architectural achievements: Construction of Qutub Minar.
• Decline: Weakened by internal disputes and the rise of the Khilji Dynasty.
• Khilji Dynasty (1290–1320 CE)
• Founder: Jalal-ud-Din Khilji.
• Expansion: Led by Alauddin Khilji into southern India.
• Economic reforms: Price controls and market regulations.
• Decline: Internal strife and the rise of the Tughlaq Dynasty.
• Tughlaq Dynasty (1320–1414 CE)
• Founded by Ghazi Malik, later known as Muhammad bin Tughlaq.
• Reforms: Attempted currency reforms and administrative changes.
• Decline: Economic issues, revolts, and weakening of central control.
• Sayyid Dynasty (1414–1451 CE)
• Established by Khizr Khan after Timur’s invasion.
• Short-lived: Known for weak rule and limited territorial control.
• Decline: Overthrown by the Lodi Dynasty.
• Lodi Dynasty (1451–1526 CE)
• Founded by Bahlul Lodi.
• Expansion: Attempted to consolidate power in northern India.
• End: Defeated by Babur at the Battle of Panipat, leading to the rise of the Mughal Empire.

7. Fatimid Caliphate (909–1171 CE)

• Founded by Abdullah al-Mahdi Billah, claiming descent from Fatimah, Muhammad’s daughter.
• Capital: Initially in Ifriqiya (modern Tunisia), later moved to Cairo.
• Cultural achievements: Founded Al-Azhar University and significant contributions to Islamic scholarship.
• Expansion: Controlled North Africa, parts of the Middle East, and the Levant.
• Decline: Weakened by internal strife and military defeats, eventually overtaken by the Ayyubids.

8. Seljuk Empire (1037–1194 CE)

• Founded by Seljuk Beg.
• Expansion: Controlled Central Asia, Persia, and parts of the Middle East.
• Cultural revival: Promoted Persian culture and established a flourishing of Islamic arts and sciences.
• Military achievements: Defended against the Crusaders and played a key role in the Battle of Manzikert (1071).
• Decline: Fragmentation into various smaller states and weakened by internal conflicts.

9. Almoravid Dynasty (1040–1147 CE)

• Founded by Abdallah ibn Yasin.
• Expansion: Controlled parts of North Africa and Spain.
• Military campaigns: Spread Islam into Sub-Saharan Africa and resisted Christian Reconquista.
• Cultural and religious reforms: Emphasized a strict interpretation of Islam.
• Decline: Overthrown by the Almohads due to internal strife and military defeats.

10. Almohad Dynasty (1121–1269 CE)

• Founded by Ibn Tumart.
• Expansion: Controlled North Africa and parts of Spain, including the significant city of Seville.
• Religious reforms: Imposed a more radical interpretation of Islam.
• Cultural contributions: Promoted intellectual and architectural advancements.
• Decline: Defeated by the Christian forces and internal rebellions.

11. Ayyubid Dynasty (1171–1260 CE)

• Founded by Salah al-Din (Saladin).
• Military achievements: Recaptured Jerusalem from the Crusaders in 1187.
• Administrative reforms: Reorganized administration and military structure.
• Cultural contributions: Significant developments in art, architecture, and scholarship.
• Decline: Fragmented into various smaller states and weakened by Mongol invasions.

12. Mamluk Sultanate (1250–1517 CE)

• Founded by Mamluk military leaders after the fall of the Ayyubids.
• Military successes: Defeated the Mongols at the Battle of Ain Jalut (1260) and Crusaders.
• Capital: Cairo, which became a major cultural and intellectual center.
• Economic prosperity: Thrived through trade and military conquest.
• Decline: Weakened by internal strife and external pressures, eventually overtaken by the Ottomans.

13. Ottoman Empire (1299–1922 CE)

• Founded by Osman I.
• Expansion: Controlled Southeast Europe, Western Asia, and North Africa.
• Golden Age: Peak under Suleiman the Magnificent with significant advancements in administration, culture, and military.
• Decline: Weakened by internal corruption, military defeats, and nationalist movements.
• End: Officially dissolved in 1922 following World War I and the establishment of the Republic of Turkey.

14. Safavid Empire (1501–1736 CE)

• Founded by Ismail I.
• Establishment of Twelver Shia Islam as the state religion.
• Capital: Isfahan, which became a major cultural and architectural center.
• Military campaigns: Faced conflicts with the Ottoman Empire and Uzbeks.
• Cultural contributions: Flourishing of Persian art, architecture, and poetry.
• Decline: Weakened by internal strife and external invasions, leading to its eventual collapse.

15. Mughal Empire (1526–1857 CE)

• Founded by Babur after the Battle of Panipat.
• Golden Age: Peak under Akbar, Jahangir, and Shah Jahan with achievements in governance, culture, and architecture.
• Architectural marvels: Construction of the Taj Mahal, Red Fort, and other significant monuments.

Shah Jahan’s Ascension and Struggle for Succession
After the death of Emperor Jahangir in October 1627 in Rajauri, the struggle for succession began between his two surviving sons, Shah Jahan and Shahrayar. Shah Jahan was supported by his father-in-law, Asaf Khan, while Shahrayar was backed by his mother-in-law, the influential Empress Nur Jahan. To manage the transition, Asaf Khan temporarily placed Dawar Bakhsh, the son of Khusrau (Jahangir’s rebellious son), as a stop-gap emperor. Simultaneously, Asaf Khan’s forces defeated Shahrayar’s troops, and Shahrayar was captured and blinded. Shah Jahan formally ascended the throne in February 1628. With his ascension, Nur Jahan retired from public life, receiving a pension of 2 lakhs annually until her death in 1645.

Marriage to Mumtaz Mahal and the Taj Mahal
Shah Jahan married Arjumand Banu Begum, later known as Mumtaz Mahal, in 1612, when he was 22. She was the daughter of Asaf Khan and the niece of Nur Jahan. Shah Jahan and Mumtaz Mahal shared a deep bond, and she became his trusted companion. Tragically, she died during childbirth in 1631, which deeply affected Shah Jahan. In her memory, he built the Taj Mahal, a monumental masterpiece of Mughal architecture, from 1632 to 1648 on the banks of the Yamuna River in Agra. The Taj Mahal, often referred to as the “Queen of Architecture” and a “Dream in Marble,” became an enduring symbol of love and Mughal grandeur.

Portuguese Conflict in Hugli (1632)
During Shah Jahan’s reign, the Portuguese had established settlements in Hugli (modern-day West Bengal) and engaged in activities that angered the Mughal administration. They imposed heavy duties on Indian traders, participated in the slave trade, converted Indians to Christianity, and even detained two slave girls of Mumtaz Mahal. In retaliation, Shah Jahan dispatched Qasim Khan to crush the Portuguese in 1632, which resulted in the capture of Hugli.

Famine of 1630-32
A severe famine struck the regions of Gujarat, Khandesh, and the Deccan between 1630 and 1632. The devastating famine led to widespread suffering, and Shah Jahan took several measures to provide relief, though the famine greatly impacted the economy and agrarian population.

Deccan and Aurangzeb’s Role
Shah Jahan left the Deccan in the charge of his third son, Aurangzeb, in 1636, after successfully quelling Shia dominance in the region. Aurangzeb continued to manage the affairs of the Deccan, focusing on improving its economic conditions by appointing Murshid Kuli Khan, who adopted Todar Mal’s revenue system to streamline financial administration.

Northwest Frontier Policy and Kandahar
During the latter part of Jahangir’s reign, the Mughals had lost control of Qandhar (present-day Afghanistan). However, Shah Jahan managed to reclaim suzerainty over Qandhar in 1638 through a strategic alliance with Ali Mardan, the governor of Qandhar, who defected from Persian allegiance. Despite securing Qandhar, Shah Jahan harbored ambitions of reclaiming Samarkand, the ancestral homeland of his Timurid ancestors. He attempted to conquer Samarkand three times but failed. These failures emboldened Shah Abbas II of Persia to recapture Qandhar in 1649.

Aurangzeb’s Resignation and Reappointment
Aurangzeb, who had been appointed as the Viceroy of Deccan, resigned in 1644 due to mistreatment by his brother Dara Shikoh. Dara, Shah Jahan’s favored son, often poisoned Shah Jahan’s mind against Aurangzeb. However, relations between Shah Jahan and Aurangzeb were restored in 1653, largely through the mediation of Shah Jahan’s daughter, Jahan Ara Begum. Aurangzeb was reappointed as the Viceroy of the Deccan, where he continued to manage the region’s affairs, focusing on its economic recovery.

War of Succession (1657-1658)
In September 1657, rumors of Shah Jahan’s illness and death triggered a war of succession among his four sons: Dara Shikoh, Shuja, Aurangzeb, and Murad. Dara Shikoh, the eldest, was Shah Jahan’s favorite and had the support of Jahan Ara Begum. On the other hand, Aurangzeb, the third son, was supported by Roshan Ara Begum. Shuja, the Governor of Bengal, was the first to declare his claim to the throne but was defeated by Dara’s forces in February 1658. Murad, then Governor of Gujarat, proclaimed his sovereignty and entered into an alliance with Aurangzeb. Together, they defeated the imperial forces at the Battle of Dharmat near Ujjain in April 1658 and again at the Battle of Samugarh in May 1658, where Dara Shikoh was decisively defeated.

After occupying Agra, Aurangzeb placed his father, Shah Jahan, under house arrest. He later arrested Murad, violating their agreement, and had him imprisoned and eventually executed in 1661 for killing his Diwan, Ali Naqi. Aurangzeb ascended the throne in July 1658, while Dara Shikoh attempted a final resistance but was eventually captured and executed. Shuja was defeated in 1659 and fled to Arakan, where he was killed.

Shah Jahan’s Confinement and Death
Shah Jahan remained imprisoned by Aurangzeb in the Agra Fort for eight long years. Despite his confinement, he was treated with relative respect, living a life of luxury under guard. Shah Jahan died in 1666 and was buried beside his beloved wife, Mumtaz Mahal, in the Taj Mahal.

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Architecture Under Shah Jahan
Shah Jahan’s reign is often referred to as the “Golden Age of Mughal Architecture.” Besides the Taj Mahal, other architectural marvels were constructed during his reign:

1. Diwan-i-Aam and Diwan-i-Khas in the Red Fort of Delhi, where he conducted public and private audiences respectively.
2. Jama Masjid in Delhi, one of the largest mosques in India, constructed between 1650 and 1656.
3. Moti Masjid in Agra, known as the “Pearl Mosque,” built for private worship.
4. Peacock Throne, an opulent symbol of Mughal wealth and grandeur, encrusted with jewels, which was later taken by Nadir Shah of Persia.

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Major Figures During Shah Jahan’s Reign

1. Abdul Hamid Lahori: The author of “Padshahnama,” the official history of Shah Jahan’s reign, which details important events, including battles, architectural achievements, and court affairs.
2. Inayat Khan: The author of “Shah Jahan Nama,” another significant work detailing the reign of Shah Jahan.
3. Muhammad Salih: The author of “Amal-i-Salih,” a historical chronicle of Shah Jahan’s period.
4. Mirza Muhammad Qasim: Author of “Alamgirnama,” critical of Dara Shikoh’s religious policies, believing that his rule would endanger the Islamic faith.

• Akbar’s Location at Humayun’s Death: When Humayun died, Akbar was at Kalanpur, a town in Punjab.
• Himu’s Role and Claim to the Throne:
  Himu, a claimant to the Mughal throne, was a strong adversary. He successfully conquered Delhi and Agra and even ascended the throne under the title “Vikramaditya.”
• The Second Battle of Panipat (1556):
  In 1556, Himu marched against the Mughals. Bairam Khan, the regent of Akbar, decisively defeated Himu at the Second Battle of Panipat. Himu was captured and killed, marking a significant victory for Akbar.
  Key Detail: This battle consolidated Mughal control over northern India and was pivotal in Akbar’s reign.

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Bairam Khan and the Regency (1556-1560)

• Bairam Khan’s Loyalty to Humayun:
  Bairam Khan, a Turkoman and Shia by faith, served Humayun loyally. He was appointed governor of Qandhar and guardian (Atga) of Akbar, affectionately called “Khan-i-Baba” (Lord Father).
• Conspiracy Against Bairam Khan (1560):
  Akbar’s mother, Hamida Banu Begum, foster mother Maham Anaga, and foster brother Adam Khan conspired against Bairam Khan. This period is known as the “Petticoat Government” (1560-1562), marked by intrigue from the Atga Khail or Harem Party.
• Bairam Khan’s Downfall and Death:
  Due to jealousy among other courtiers and his high-handedness, Bairam Khan’s influence waned. After his revolt against Akbar, he was asked to go on a pilgrimage to Mecca. During this journey, he was assassinated in Patan, Gujarat.

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Akbar’s Relationship with His Family

• Muhammad Hakim:
  Akbar’s half-brother, Muhammad Hakim, was made governor of Kabul. Later, he invaded Punjab but was defeated by Akbar’s forces and forgiven. He died in 1585 in Kabul under mysterious circumstances.
• Maham Anaga and Adam Khan:
  Akbar came under the influence of Maham Anaga and her son, Adam Khan, between 1560-1562. Adam Khan was later executed by Akbar for his insubordination and disregard for royal commands. Maham Anaga, grief-stricken by her son’s death, died shortly after.

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Rajput Policy and Military Campaigns

• Marriage Alliances with Rajputs:
  Akbar sought to win the hearts of the Hindu majority, forming marriage alliances with Rajput rulers. The first to offer a daughter to Akbar was Raja Bihari Mal of Amber. Prominent Rajput leaders, such as Raja Todar Mal, Raja Bhagwan Das, and Raja Man Singh, became close allies of the Emperor.
  Key Question: What significance did Akbar’s marriage alliances with Rajputs hold in strengthening his empire?
• Fall of Chittor (1568):
  Akbar captured the strategic fort of Chittor in 1568 after a prolonged siege. The fall of Chittor made most Rajput kingdoms submit to Mughal authority, except for Rana Pratap Singh of Mewar.
• Battle of Haldighati (1576):
  Rana Pratap Singh was defeated by Akbar’s forces, led by Raja Man Singh, in the Battle of Haldighati in 1576. However, Rana Pratap retreated to the mountains and continued guerrilla warfare. His son, Amar Singh, eventually submitted to Akbar’s son, Jahangir, in 1615.
• Conquest of Gujarat (1572):
  Akbar marched against Muzaffar Shah III of Gujarat, who submitted in 1572. This conquest extended the Mughal Empire to the Arabian Sea, bringing Akbar into contact with the Portuguese.

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Akbar’s Religious Policies and Reforms

• Sulah-i-Kul:
  Akbar followed the policy of Sulah-i-Kul (peace with all), advocating for religious tolerance. This was partly influenced by his teacher, Abdul Latif, a man of moderation.
• The Ibadat Khana:
  In 1575, Akbar built the Ibadat Khana (House of Worship) in Fatehpur Sikri, where scholars of various religions—Hindus, Muslims, Jains, and Christians—were invited for discussions. In 1579, Akbar even displaced the Chief Imam and read the Khutba himself at the Jama Masjid.
• Din-i-Ilahi (1582):
  Akbar introduced Din-i-Ilahi in 1582, an eclectic religious movement aimed at fostering unity among his subjects. However, it had limited following; only 18 members, including Birbal, joined.
• Influence of Mahdavi and Roshni Movements:
  Akbar was influenced by the Mahdavi movement, founded by Sayyid Mahmoud, and the Roshni movement of Pir Roshan, both of which promoted mysticism and spiritual reforms.
  Key Question: How did the religious movements of the Mahdavis and Roshni shape Akbar’s religious outlook?

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Akbar’s Military and Administrative Systems

• Mansabdari System:
  Akbar introduced the Mansabdari system, a hierarchical military system where rank (mansab) determined the number of troops a commander could maintain.
• Provincial and Sarkar Administration:
  Akbar’s empire was divided into 15 provinces, each further divided into Sarkars (districts) and Parganas (sub-districts).
• Key Figures in Administration:
• Diwan (Finance Department): Managed revenue and finances. Todar Mal, an experienced administrator from Sher Shah’s reign, was instrumental in reforms.
• Mir Bakhshi (Military): Managed the imperial army.
• Khan-i-Saman (Imperial Household): Managed the Emperor’s household.
• Qazi-ul-Qazzat (Judiciary): Chief judicial officer of the empire.
• Mir Atish (Artillery): Managed the artillery.
• Land Classification:
  Akbar’s administration classified land into four categories for tax purposes:

1. Polaj: Land regularly cultivated.
2. Parauti: Fallow for some part of the year.
3. Chachar: Fallow for 3-4 years.
4. Banjar: Uncultivated land.

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Expansion and Military Conquests

• Conquest of Kashmir (1586):
  Akbar annexed Kashmir in 1586. Qasim Khan and Raja Bhagwan Das led the Mughal forces. Despite strong resistance from Yaqub Khan and his son, they were defeated.
• Siege of Asirgarh (1601):
  Akbar captured the fort of Asirgarh in 1601 after a prolonged siege, marking the final expansion of his empire.

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Relations with Foreign Powers

• Portuguese Relations:
  Akbar’s conquest of Gujarat brought him into contact with the Portuguese. The first Portuguese mission, led by Rudolf Acquaviva and Father Monserrate, arrived at his court in 1580.

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Cultural and Architectural Achievements

• Fatehpur Sikri:
  Akbar built his new capital at *Fatehpur Sikri, a masterpiece of Mughal architecture, featuring the *Buland Darwaza and Jama Masjid.
• Agra Fort:
  Akbar also expanded the Agra Fort, another key architectural feat of his reign.
• Jodha Bai’s Palace:
  A blend of Hindu and Mughal styles, this palace in Fatehpur Sikri symbolizes Akbar’s policy of Hindu-Muslim integration.

Key Question: How did Akbar’s architectural projects reflect his vision of a united empire?

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Literature and Historiography

• Abul Fazl’s Works:
  Abul Fazl, Akbar’s close confidante, wrote the Ain-i-Akbari and Akbarnama, chronicling Akbar’s reign.
• Other Literary Works:
• Tabakat-i-Akbari by Nizamuddin Ahmad.
• Muntakhab-ul-Tawarikh by Badauni.
• Ramcharitmanas by Tulsidas, a Hindi version of the Ramayana.

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End of Akbar’s Life and Legacy

• Revolt of Prince Salim:
  Akbar’s eldest son, Salim (later Jahangir), revolted against him. However, they reconciled before Akbar’s death.
• Akbar’s Death (1605):
  Akbar died of diarrhea in 1605. His two other sons, Murad and danyal died of excessive drinking..

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End of Akbar’s Life and Legacy (Continued)

• Revolt of Prince Salim (Later Jahangir):
  Prince Salim, Akbar’s eldest son, grew increasingly rebellious during the final years of Akbar’s reign, frustrated by his father’s prolonged rule. Salim declared himself emperor in Allahabad in 1600. Akbar initially took strong measures to suppress Salim’s rebellion, but they reconciled before Akbar’s death.
• Akbar’s Health Decline and Death (1605):
  Akbar fell gravely ill due to chronic dysentery (or diarrhea), which worsened in late 1605. After weeks of suffering, Akbar died on *October 27, 1605, at the age of 63. He was buried in a grand mausoleum in *Sikandra, near Agra, which he had begun planning and constructing during his lifetime.
• Akbar’s Legacy:
  Akbar left behind a vast, centralized empire stretching from Afghanistan to Bengal. He was known not only for his military conquests but also for his policies of religious tolerance, administrative reforms, and fostering a rich cultural environment. His reign marked the golden age of the Mughal Empire, laying the foundation for future Mughal rulers like Jahangir and Shah Jahan. Key Points in Legacy:
• Akbar’s policy of religious pluralism (Sulah-i-Kul) set the tone for future emperors, influencing relations with non-Muslim subjects.
• His architectural contributions—Fatehpur Sikri, Agra Fort, Akbar’s Tomb in Sikandra—are still admired for their grandeur and blend of Persian, Islamic, and local Indian styles.
• The Mansabdari system became a cornerstone of Mughal administration for future generations.

Ascension to the Throne

• Jahangir, whose real name was Salim, ascended the Mughal throne at Agra in 1605, adopting the title Nuruddin Muhammad Jahangir Padshah Ghazi.
• His reign began with the institution of a Chain of Justice that allowed the common people to appeal directly to the emperor.
• He also proclaimed twelve ordinances, known as Dastur-ul-amal (rules of conduct), aimed at ensuring just administration and governance.

Rebellion of Khusrau

• Shortly after his coronation, Jahangir’s son Khusrau, backed by some nobles, rebelled. The rebellion was suppressed near Jullundar, and Khusrau was placed under semi-confinement in the Fort of Agra.
• A conspiracy in 1607 aimed at assassinating Jahangir and placing Khusrau on the throne was thwarted. Jahangir returned from Lahore, blinded Khusrau, and imprisoned him. Khusrau died in 1622.

Loss of Qandhar (1622)

• Jahangir neglected the defense of Qandhar, which had been captured by Akbar in 1595.
• In 1622, Shah Abbas I of Persia deceitfully laid siege to Qandhar and took possession of the city after a 40-day siege, dealing a significant blow to Mughal defenses in the region.

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Nur Jahan’s Influence

• Early Life: Nur Jahan, originally named Mehr-un-Nisa, was the daughter of Mirza Ghiyas Beg, who served under Akbar.
• *Marriage and Influence: Nur Jahan was first married to Sher Afghan (Ali Quli Istajlu), but he fell out of favor with Jahangir and was killed in 1607. She was later brought to the Mughal court and, in 1611, married Jahangir, receiving the title *Nur Jahan.
• *Role in the Empire: Nur Jahan was highly influential, inventing the *attar of roses, and promoting her family’s interests. She dominated court politics and even arranged the marriage of her daughter, Ladli Begum, to Jahangir’s son Shahrayar.

Political Intrigues

• Nur Jahan favored her son-in-law Shahrayar(fifth and youngest son of Jahangir) as Jahangir’s successor. However, Prince Khurram (Shah Jahan) gained prominence after leading successful military campaigns, especially in the Deccan.
• Shah Jahan’s Revolt and Reconciliation:Shah Jahan (Prince Khurram) revolted against his father Jahangir in 1622. There were several reasons for this uprising:
• Nur Jahan’s Political Influence: Nur Jahan had grown very powerful within the Mughal court, and she aimed to secure the succession for her son-in-law Shahrayar , Jahangir’s youngest son. Shah Jahan viewed this as a direct threat to his claim to the throne and his authority as Jahangir’s favored heir.
• Marital and Court Tensions : Nur Jahan married her daughter, Ladli Begum, to Shahrayar in an effort to consolidate power within her family. This further alienated Shah Jahan, who felt sidelined by Nur Jahan’s influence in court.
• Failure in Kandahar : In 1622, Shah Abbas of Persia captured Kandahar, a city that Akbar had originally taken in 1595. Jahangir refused to support Shah Jahan’s demands for military assistance to reclaim the fort, leading to frustration. Shah Jahan was already under pressure because of his failure to defend Kandahar, and this fueled his decision to rebel.

Shah Jahan reconciled with Jahangir by sending his two sons, Dara Shikoh and Aurangzeb, to the Mughal court.

Revolt of Mahabat Khan

• Who was Mahabat Khan?: Mahabat Khan was a loyal Mughal general who became disillusioned with Nur Jahan’s increasing power. He revolted against Jahangir in 1626, briefly capturing the emperor. However, the rebellion was short-lived, and Jahangir was restored to power.

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Military Campaigns

uprising of the Bara Bhuiyans:

Bengal Rebellion – Bara Bhuiyans Uprising:

The Bara Bhuiyans were a confederation of powerful zamindars (landowners) in Bengal. During Jahangir’s rule, they were led by a notable leader, *Narayanganj Usman, who resisted the Mughal authority and control in the Bengal region. The term *Bara Bhuiyans means “Twelve Chiefs,”.

The Uprising:

In response to the defiance of the *Bara Bhuiyans, *Jahangir appointed Islam Khan, a competent Mughal general, as the Subedar (governor) of Bengal in 1608. Islam Khan’s primary mission was to bring Bengal firmly under Mughal control and suppress the rebellion.

1. *Campaign Against Bara Bhuiyans: In 1612, Islam Khan launched a military campaign against the rebellious zamindars. The key leader of the Bhuiyans, *Narayanganj Usman, put up a strong resistance. Defeat of Narayanganj Usman: Despite their formidable opposition, the Bhuiyans were ultimately defeated. Usman was killed in battle, marking the end of organized resistance from the Bhuiyan zamindars. The
2. Subjugation of Mewar: After the defeat of Rana Pratap Singh, his son Amar Singh became the new ruler of Mewar. In 1613, Jahangir sent his son Khurram (later Shah Jahan) to subdue Amar Singh. Amar Singh acknowledged Mughal suzerainty, provided 1,000 horses as tribute, and sent his son, Karan, to the Mughal court as a token of loyalty.
3. *Deccan Campaign: Malik Ambar, an Abyssinian who rose to prominence in Ahmadnagar, recaptured the Deccan from the Mughals in 1610. However, in 1616, Prince Khurram was assigned to lead the Mughal forces in the Deccan. Khurram’s success in capturing Ahmadnagar earned him the title *Shah Jahan.
4. Capture of Kangra (1619): The crowning military achievement of Jahangir’s reign was the capture of the Kangra Fort in Punjab, which was a strategic victory for the Mughals.

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Foreign Relations

1. Portuguese Relations: Jahangir’s relations with the Portuguese deteriorated in 1613 when they captured and plundered four imperial ships. In response, Jahangir attacked their settlement at Daman, leading to humiliation for the Portuguese.
2. Relations with the English: While the Portuguese lost favor, the English gained the emperor’s trust. William Hawkins, William Edwards, and Sir Thomas Roe were notable English envoys to the Mughal court. Hawkins was even granted permission to trade and establish a factory at Surat.

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Art, Architecture, and Culture

1. *Jahangir’s Love for Art: Jahangir’s deep love for painting earned him the title *Prince of Artists. He had a keen eye for details and encouraged portraiture and nature studies. His reign marked a golden era for Mughal miniature painting.
2. *Literature: Jahangir personally wrote his memoirs, *Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri, which remains an important historical document detailing his reign and personal reflections.
3. Architecture: Although Jahangir was not as prolific a builder as his father Akbar or son Shah Jahan, notable architectural contributions include the construction of his own mausoleum in Lahore, built by his widow, Nur Jahan.

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Religious Beliefs

• Jahangir was relatively indifferent toward religious orthodoxy, continuing Akbar’s policy of Sulah-i-Kul (peace with all). This tolerance extended to both Hindus and Muslims, promoting religious harmony in his empire.

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End of Jahangir’s Reign

• Jahangir’s excessive consumption of alcohol and opium weakened his health. He died in October 1627.
• His death led to a power struggle between his sons, but ultimately, Shah Jahan emerged victorious and succeeded him.