Humayun ascended the throne of Delhi on December 30, 1530, just days after his father Babur’s death. His reign, however, was fraught with challenges, particularly from his brothers and rivals like Kamran Mirza, who aspired to control parts of the empire. Kamran, his half-brother, became the governor of Kabul and Lahore and was one of Humayun’s most dangerous adversaries.

Despite facing internal challenges, Humayun’s first military expedition was against Sultan Mahmud Lodi in 1532, whose ambition to recover the Afghan throne still threatened the Mughal Empire. Humayun’s victory in the Battle of Dadrah (1532) solidified his position in the east. However, this victory was short-lived, as he soon had to contend with Bahadur Shah, the powerful ruler of Gujarat.

Sher Shah Suri (1472–1545)

Sher Shah Suri, born as Farid Khan in 1472 at Bajwara, Hoshiarpur, emerged as Humayun’s most formidable adversary. After being neglected by his father, Hasan Khan, Farid Khan moved to Jaunpur, where he learned Persian and Arabic. It was in Jaunpur that he caught the attention of Jamal Khan, the governor of the region. Afterward, he joined the service of Bahar Khan Lohani, the ruler of Bihar, in 1522. Here, he earned the title of Sher Khan after killing a tiger.

In 1527, Sher Khan briefly served under Babur after Bahar Khan’s jealousy-driven nobles ousted him. However, by 1528, he left Mughal service to resume his career in Bihar. Following Bahar Khan’s death, Sher Khan became the de facto ruler of Bihar under the tutelage of Bahar Khan’s widow, Dadu Bibi, who appointed him deputy governor. After her death in 1529, Sher Khan consolidated power.

Humayun’s Campaigns against Sher Shah

In 1531, Humayun marched against Sher Khan, but the latter evaded conflict through timely submission. However, by 1537, Sher Khan had already gained control over Bihar and Chunar, causing alarm for Humayun. Despite being advised by Yusuf Khalil to focus on the conquest of Gaur first, Humayun undertook the Siege of Chunar. Realizing the futility, Humayun sought peace with Sher Khan and turned his attention to Gaur, which Sher Khan allowed him to capture.

While Humayun celebrated his success in Gaur, Sher Khan rapidly expanded his control between Delhi and Bihar. In June 1539, Sher Khan decisively defeated Humayun in the Battle of Chausa. After this victory, Sher Khan assumed the title of Sher Shah Suri. Humayun suffered another major defeat in the Battle of Qanauj (May 1540) at the hands of Sher Shah, costing him his throne and sending him into exile.

Humayun’s Exile and Return

After his defeat, Humayun was abandoned by Kamran, who refused to provide military support. Humayun sought refuge with Rana Prasad of Umerkot, where Akbar was born to Hamida Banu Begum on 23 November 1542. Eventually, Humayun fled to Persia, converting to Shia Islam to gain the favor of Shah Tahmasp I. With Persian support, Humayun reclaimed Kabul and defeated his rebellious brother Kamran, whom he later blinded.

Humayun’s fortunes changed when Sher Shah’s son, Islam Shah died in 1554 and Firuz, the son of Islam Shah, was killed by his uncle, Muhammad Adil Shah. Taking advantage of the internal strife, Humayun re-entered India, capturing Lahore in 1555 and reclaiming his capital, Delhi, by July 1555. However, his reign was cut short when he died on January 24, 1556, after falling from a staircase.

Sher Shah Suri’s Reign (1540–1545)

After defeating Humayun, Sher Shah became the undisputed ruler of northern India. His administrative reforms and military strategies set the foundation for Mughal governance, and he is often regarded as the forerunner of Akbar.

Sher Shah’s administration divided his empire into 47 sarkars (Divisions), each headed by a Shiqdar (military head) and a Munsif (judicial head). He introduced a system of land revenue collection (1/3rd of produce) based on detailed surveys and fixed rates per unit of land. His currency reforms included the introduction of a silver Tanka weighing 178 grains, which became the standard for the subcontinent for centuries. He also issued gold coins and a copper coin for small transactions.

Sher Shah is credited with implementing Alauddin Khilji’s military reforms, such as transferring officers every two to three years to prevent the accumulation of local power. He also introduced the concept of local police responsibility, where local chiefs were held accountable for crimes in their areas, ensuring effective law enforcement.

Sher Shah’s Legacy

Sher Shah is perhaps best remembered for his infrastructural achievements, such as building the Grand Trunk Road, which stretched from Sonargaon in Bengal to Rohtas in Punjab. He built several forts, including Rohtas Fort (near present-day Jhelum in Pakistan), with 50,000 troops to control the Ghakkars. Sher Shah also built Purana Qila in Delhi on the banks of the Yamuna, as well as his grand mausoleum in Sasaram, completed in 1545.

Sher Shah’s reign ended with his accidental death during the Siege of Kalinjar on May 22, 1545, due to the explosion of gunpowder. He was succeeded by his son, Islam Shah (Jalal Khan), whose reign was marked by internal conflicts.

Humayun’s Return and Final Victory

Taking advantage of the instability following Sher Shah’s death, Humayun returned to India with Persian support. By 1555, he had recaptured Lahore and Delhi. Despite his eventual success, his return to power was short-lived, as he died just six months later on January 24, 1556, leaving his empire to his son Akbar.

Babur’s Early Life:

• Babur was born on February 24, 1483, in Andijan, the capital of Farghana.
• He was the son of Umar Sheikh Mirza, who was the ruler of Farghana.
• Babur’s lineage was significant:
• He descended from Timur (Tamerlane), a Chaghtai Turk on his father’s side.
• On his mother’s side, he was descended from Genghis Khan, a Mongol ruler.
• Contrary to some beliefs, Babur did not consider himself a Mughal; he referred to himself as a Turk.
• At the young age of 11, upon his father’s death in 1494, Babur became the ruler of Farghana.

Struggles for Samarkand and Farghana:

• In 1496, Babur led his first expedition to Samarkand, but he was defeated.
• However, in 1497, he made another attempt and successfully captured Samarkand.
• Unfortunately, while he was away in Samarkand, a revolt erupted in his homeland, Farghana.
• Babur rushed to suppress the rebellion, but in doing so, he lost control of both Farghana and Samarkand.

Babur’s Occupation of Kabul:

• After losing his territory, Babur set out to explore new opportunities. In 1504, he crossed the Hindu Kush mountains and captured Kabul, where he declared himself Padshah (King).

Babur’s Campaigns in Indo-Pakistan:

• Babur had made several unsuccessful attempts to establish his authority in India, but his fourth expedition to Indo-Pakistan in 1524 proved to be more significant.
• Daulat Khan Lodi, the governor of Punjab, invited Babur to invade the territory because of his strained relationship with Sultan Ibrahim Lodi. Daulat Khan expected to be rewarded with the vice-royalty of the region.
• However, after Babur occupied several cities, Daulat Khan was offered only two districts and subsequently turned against Babur.

Battle of Panipat (1526):

• Babur led his sixth expedition to India and faced Ibrahim Lodi in the First Battle of Panipat on April 21, 1526.
• The battle took place in the historic fields of Panipat (modern-day Haryana, India).
• Ibrahim Lodi was defeated and killed in the battle, which marked the end of the Delhi Sultanate (1206-1526) and the beginning of the Mughal Empire in the Indo-Pakistan region.

Further Battles and Conflict with Rana Sanga:

• In 1527, Babur faced Rana Sanga of Mewar at the Battle of Khanwa.
• Babur, who was fond of wine, famously gave it up during this period as a gesture of discipline for the battle.

Babur as an Author:

• Babur’s autobiography, known as Tuzk-i-Babur (or Baburnama), is considered a masterpiece of its kind, providing a detailed account of his life, campaigns, and the political landscape of the time.
• Baburnama was originally written in Turkish and later translated into Persian during the reign of Akbar by Abdur Rahim Khan-i-Khanan.
• This earned Babur the title of “Prince of Autobiographers” due to his candid and articulate narration of his life and conquests.

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Jalaluddin Khalji (1290-1296)

• Ascension:

 Jalaluddin Khalji ascended the throne of Delhi in 1290 at the age of 75, marking the beginning of the Khilji Dynasty. His rule followed the end of the Mamluk Dynasty.

• Military Campaigns:

Made two unsuccessful attempts to recapture the fort of Ranthambor, demonstrating the challenges he faced in consolidating power.

• Religious and Political Strictness:

Displayed extreme strictness in dealing with Sidi Maula, a disciple of Fariduddin Ganj Shakar of Pakpattan, highlighting his intolerance for dissent and potential threats.

• Mongol Invasion:

In 1292, Jalaluddin faced a Mongol invasion led by Abdullah. After the conflict, many Mongols, including one Ulghu Khan, chose to stay in India, converted to Islam, and were historically referred to as “New Muslims.”

• Alauddin Khalji’s Rise:

Jalaluddin appointed his nephew and son-in-law, Alauddin Khalji, as the governor of Kara and Oudh. Alauddin’s successful campaign against the ruler of Deogir increased his power and ambition.

In 1296, Alauddin betrayed and murdered Jalaluddin in Deccan, marking the end of Jalaluddin’s reign and the start of Alauddin’s.

 Alauddin Khalji (1296-1316)

• Ascension and Mongol Threat:

Ascended the throne in 1296. The persistent Mongol threat led him to maintain a large standing army, necessitating heavy taxation such as house tax and grazing tax to fund the military.

• Malik Kafur:

Malik Kafur was a slave captured in the Gujarat campaign, who rose to prominence under Alauddin’s reign. He became a trusted general and eventually, a powerful figure in the empire.

• Military Campaigns:
• Conquest of Chittor: Around 1303, Alauddin led his army against Chittor, a campaign shrouded in legend due to the story of Queen Padmini.
• Deccan Campaigns: The conquest of Deccan was one of Alauddin’s most notable achievements, expanding the Delhi Sultanate into southern India.

• Administrative and Economic Reforms:
• Ulema and State Separation: Alauddin was the first Sultan to declare that religious scholars (ulema) would not interfere in state matters, a response to revolts and insurrections.
• Abolishment of Private Property: Alauddin abolished private property to prevent rebellions. Chronicler Ziauddin Barani noted that people were so preoccupied with basic survival that rebellion became unthinkable.
• Land Survey System: Introduced the first system of land survey in the subcontinent, later refined by rulers like Sher Shah Suri and Akbar.
• Huliah System: This military reform involved the detailed registration and description of soldiers to prevent corruption and fraud.
• Price Control and Market Reforms:
• Imposed strict price controls to manage the economy and sustain the large army.
• Wheat was priced at 7.5 jitals per maund; a first-grade horse at 120 tankas.
• Introduced rationing and appointed two key market officers: Shahana-i-Mandi (superintendent of grain market) and Diwan-i-Riyasat (in charge of cloth and general market).

• Patronage of Arts and Architecture:
• Alai Darwaza: A significant architectural contribution in Delhi.
• City of Siri: Another notable creation of his reign.
• Cultural Patronage: Poets like Amir Khusrau and Sufi saint Shaikh Nizamuddin Auliya flourished during his reign.

• Downfall and Death:
• Towards the end of his reign, Alauddin’s health deteriorated, and he became heavily influenced by his minister Malik Kafur.
• Death: Alauddin died in 1316, after ruling for 20 years. His death marked the decline of the Khilji dynasty.

Malik Kafur and the Fall of the Khilji Dynasty (1316-1320)

• Power Struggle:

• Malik Kafur, exploiting Alauddin’s declining health, imprisoned and blinded Alauddin’s sons, Khizr Khan and Shadi Khan, and nominated Alauddin’s infant son, Shihabuddin, as the successor.
• Kafur became regent for the infant Sultan, married Alauddin’s widow, and consolidated power.

 Death of Malik Kafur: Kafur was eventually assassinated by a soldier, leading to the rise of Mubarak Khan, Alauddin’s third son.

Mubarak Shah (1316-1320):

• Blinded his infant brother Shihabuddin and ascended the throne in 1316.

  • His rule was short-lived, ending with his murder by Khusrau Khan, the governor of Deccan, in 1320.

 Khusrau Khan’s Brief Reign:

• End of Khilji Dynasty: Ghazi Malik, the governor of Punjab, rebelled against Khusrau Khan, defeated him, and executed him in 1320. Ghazi Malik ascended the throne as Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq, founding the Tughlaq Dynasty, bringing an end to the Khilji Dynasty.

The Lodi dynasty was the last dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate, founded by Bahlol Lodi in 1451 after the abdication of the last Sayyid ruler, Alam Shah. Here’s a detailed account of the Lodi dynasty, including its key figures and events, leading to the establishment of the Mughal Empire:

1. Bahlol Lodi (1451-1489)

• Foundation of the Dynasty: Alam Shah, the last ruler of the Sayyid dynasty, abdicated the throne in favor of Bahlol Lodi in 1451, citing his own incompetence. Bahlol Lodi was a powerful Afghan noble who had built up significant influence in the Punjab region.
• Consolidation of Power: Upon ascending the throne, Bahlol Lodi faced the challenge of unifying a fragmented Delhi Sultanate. He appointed his son, Barbak Shah, as the governor of Jaunpur, a significant provincial center.
• Military Campaigns: Bahlol Lodi spent much of his reign consolidating his power and extending his influence over northern India. He successfully captured and retained control over key regions, including Punjab and Delhi.
• Death and Succession: Bahlol Lodi died in 1489 after a reign of approximately 38 years. His death led to the ascension of his son, Nizam Khan, who took the throne under the title Sikandar Lodi.

2. Sikandar Lodi (1489-1517)

• Ascension to the Throne: Sikandar Lodi, whose real name was Nizam Khan, succeeded his father in 1489. His ascension was initially challenged by his brother, Barbak Shah, the governor of Jaunpur. However, Sikandar successfully retained control, consolidating his rule over the Sultanate.
• Administrative and Cultural Reforms: Sikandar Lodi is remembered as a capable administrator and a patron of arts and learning. He was a poet himself and composed poetry under the pen name “Gul Rukh.” He ordered the translation of a Sanskrit medical text into Persian, highlighting his interest in knowledge and culture.
• Relocation of Capital: One of Sikandar Lodi’s significant actions was the relocation of the capital from Delhi to Agra. This move was strategic, as it allowed him better control over central India and facilitated the expansion of his influence.
• Military Campaigns: Sikandar Lodi undertook several military campaigns to subjugate the chiefs of central India and expand his territory. His reign is marked by relative stability and consolidation of the Sultanate’s power.
• Death: Sikandar Lodi died in 1517 after a successful reign of 28 years, leaving the throne to his son, Ibrahim Lodi.

3. Ibrahim Lodi (1517-1526)

• Challenges to Rule: Ibrahim Lodi faced immediate challenges to his rule, most notably from his younger brother, Jalal Khan. This familial conflict weakened the central authority and created opportunities for rebellion among the nobles.
• Conflict with Nobles: Ibrahim Lodi was wary of the power of the Afghan nobles and sought to centralize authority by imprisoning and dismissing several of them. This heavy-handed approach led to widespread resentment and a series of rebellions across the Sultanate.
• Rebellion and Babur’s Invasion: Among the discontented nobles was Daulat Khan Lodi, the governor of Punjab. Feeling threatened by Ibrahim’s policies, Daulat Khan invited Babur, the ruler of Kabul, to invade India. Babur had long harbored ambitions of conquering the rich lands of India and accepted the invitation.
• Battle of Panipat (1526): In 1526, Babur led an expedition into India, culminating in the First Battle of Panipat. Babur’s forces, although outnumbered, were better equipped and strategically superior. Ibrahim Lodi was killed in the battle, marking the end of the Lodi dynasty and the Delhi Sultanate, and paving the way for the establishment of the Mughal Empire under Babur.

The Sayyid dynasty (1414-1451) was an important but relatively short-lived dynasty in the history of the Delhi Sultanate. It was founded by Khizr Khan, who laid the foundation for this new era in the Sultanate’s history following the decline of the Tughlaq dynasty. The Sayyid dynasty played a transitional role in the history of the Delhi Sultanate, bridging the gap between the Tughlaqs and the Lodis.

Founding of the Sayyid Dynasty

Khizr Khan’s Rise to Power (1414):
Khizr Khan, the founder of the Sayyid dynasty, was originally the governor of Multan under the Tughlaq dynasty. His rise to prominence began during the time of Amir Timur’s (Tamerlane) invasion of India in 1398. Timur, after sacking Delhi and decimating the remnants of the Tughlaq dynasty, appointed Khizr Khan as the Viceroy of India.

Though Timur departed from India, leaving the region in disarray, Khizr Khan remained in power as his representative. It’s important to note that Khizr Khan did not claim the title of Sultan or King but instead professed to be a representative or Viceroy of Timur’s son, Shahrukh, who ruled over the Timurid Empire after Timur’s death. The Sayyid dynasty is named as such because Khizr Khan claimed to be a descendant of the Prophet Muhammad (PBUH), although this claim lacks strong historical evidence.

In 1414, Khizr Khan marched on Delhi, capturing the city and marking the beginning of the Sayyid dynasty.

Khizr Khan’s Reign (1414-1421)

Khizr Khan’s reign was marked by efforts to consolidate his control over the fragmented Delhi Sultanate. His authority, however, was limited mostly to the region around Delhi, and he faced constant challenges from rebellious nobles and regional rulers.

Key Conflicts and Challenges:

1. Battle against Mallu Iqbal Khan: Mallu Iqbal Khan was a powerful noble and former governor who controlled much of the region around Delhi. He declared independence during the final years of the Tughlaq dynasty. Khizr Khan engaged him in battle and ultimately defeated him, bringing the region back under his control.
2. Campaigns against the Rajputs and Other Local Rulers: Khizr Khan also had to deal with resistance from Rajput chiefs in regions like Mewat and the Doab. These local rulers sought to assert their independence in the power vacuum left by the Tughlaqs, but Khizr Khan conducted military campaigns to bring them under his authority.

Death and Succession:
Khizr Khan ruled until his death in 1421. His death marked the end of his efforts to maintain the fragile unity of the Sultanate, and he was succeeded by his son, Mubarak Shah.

Mubarak Shah (1421-1434)

Mubarak Shah, Khizr Khan’s son, ascended to the throne in 1421. His reign was marked by numerous internal and external challenges, and he struggled to maintain the authority of the Sayyid dynasty.

Key Conflicts and Challenges:

2. Internal Strife: Mubarak Shah also faced internal dissent from his own nobles, who were dissatisfied with his rule. This dissatisfaction culminated in Mubarak Shah’s assassination in 1434. He was killed by a noble named Sarwar-ul-Mulk, who had conspired with other disaffected nobles to eliminate the Sultan.

Muhammad Shah (1434-1445)

Following Mubarak Shah’s assassination, his nephew Muhammad Shah was placed on the throne in 1434. Muhammad Shah’s reign was characterized by further instability and decline.

Key Conflicts and Challenges:

1. Continued Rebellions: Like his predecessors, Muhammad Shah faced rebellions from regional governors and nobles who sought to assert their independence. His reign was marked by a continuous struggle to maintain control over the increasingly fragmented Sultanate.
2. The Rise of Bahlol Lodi: During Muhammad Shah’s reign, Bahlol Lodi, an Afghan noble who had been appointed governor of Sirhind, began to emerge as a significant power. Bahlol Lodi skillfully maneuvered through the political landscape, gradually increasing his influence while outwardly remaining loyal to the Sayyid dynasty.

Alam Shah (1445-1451): The Last Sayyid Ruler

After Muhammad Shah’s death in 1445, Alam Shah, the last ruler of the Sayyid dynasty, ascended to the throne. Alam Shah was a weak ruler who failed to maintain control over the Sultanate.

Key Events:

1. Decline of Authority: During Alam Shah’s reign, the authority of the Delhi Sultanate continued to erode. Regional governors and nobles became increasingly autonomous, and Alam Shah’s control was limited to the city of Delhi.
2. Voluntary Abdication: In 1451, recognizing his inability to rule effectively, Alam Shah voluntarily abdicated the throne in favor of Bahlol Lodi. Alam Shah retired to Badaun, where he spent the remainder of his life.

Transition to the Lodi Dynasty

The abdication of Alam Shah in 1451 marked the end of the Sayyid dynasty and the beginning of the Lodi dynasty. Bahlol Lodi, who had already established himself as the most powerful noble in the Sultanate, ascended the throne and became the first ruler of the Lodi dynasty. This transition marked the final phase of the Delhi Sultanate before the establishment of the Mughal Empire.

Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq (Ghazi Malik) and His Reign

Intervention in Bengal Civil War:
During Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq’s reign, a significant civil war erupted in Bengal between two brothers, Nasiruddin and Alauddin. This conflict threatened the stability of the region, and Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq, seeing the need for central intervention, marched his forces to Bengal. His intervention was decisive, restoring order and reinforcing the authority of the Delhi Sultanate in Bengal.

Death of Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq:
Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq’s reign was cut short in 1325 when he died under mysterious circumstances. After returning from a successful campaign, a wooden pavilion built by his son, Juna Khan (later known as Muhammad bin Tughlaq), collapsed on him. There has been speculation among historians about whether this incident was an accident or a deliberate act orchestrated by Juna Khan, as the structure’s collapse led to his immediate ascension to the throne.

Muhammad Bin Tughlaq (Juna Khan) – The Mad Monarch or Mixture of Opposites

Early Reign:
Muhammad bin Tughlaq, known for his intellectual capabilities, ascended the throne in 1325. His reign began with a decade of relative tranquility (1325-1335), during which he consolidated his power and focused on administrative reforms. However, the latter half of his reign (1335-1351) was marred by a series of ill-conceived projects and rebellions that earned him the titles “Mad Monarch” and “Mixture of Opposites.”

Five Notable Projects and Their Failures:

1. Increased Taxes in Doab:

• Muhammad bin Tughlaq attempted to increase revenue by imposing higher taxes in the fertile Doab region between the Ganges and Yamuna rivers. Unfortunately, this coincided with a severe famine, leading to widespread hardship and rebellion. The tax increase was eventually repealed, but the damage to the state’s finances and the people’s loyalty was irreversible.

1. Shift of Capital to Daulatabad:

• Tughlaq decided to move the capital from Delhi to Deogir in the Deccan region, renaming it Daulatabad. His reasoning was to have a more centrally located capital that could better control the entire subcontinent. However, the forced migration of the population from Delhi to Daulatabad resulted in significant suffering and death. The scheme failed due to the logistical challenges and the eventual return to Delhi after eight years, further draining the state’s resources.

1. Introduction of Token Currency:

• Muhammad bin Tughlaq introduced copper coins as token currency to address a shortage of silver. However, the poorly managed system led to widespread counterfeiting, as people started minting their own coins. The currency rapidly lost value, leading to economic chaos and the eventual withdrawal of the token currency.

1. Khorasan Expedition:

• Muhammad bin Tughlaq planned an ambitious military expedition to conquer Khorasan and Iraq. He raised a large army and imposed heavy taxes to fund the campaign, but the project was abandoned before it even began. The resources spent on this futile endeavor weakened the state financially and militarily.

1. Qarachil Expedition:

• The Qarachil expedition was aimed at securing the northern frontiers and expanding into the Himalayan region. However, the campaign ended in disaster, with heavy losses for the Tughlaq forces. The failure of this expedition further tarnished Muhammad bin Tughlaq’s reputation.

These projects exemplify the reasons why Muhammad bin Tughlaq is often viewed as a ruler of extremes, capable of grand vision but also of catastrophic failures. His unpredictable and often contradictory decisions led to widespread discontent and rebellion.

Rebellions and Unpopularity

Throughout his reign, Muhammad bin Tughlaq faced numerous rebellions, including:

• Rebellion of Jalaluddin Ahsan of Madurai:
• Jalaluddin Ahsan, governor of Madurai, declared independence in 1335, establishing the Madurai Sultanate. Muhammad bin Tughlaq was unable to suppress this rebellion, leading to the loss of the southernmost regions of his empire.
• Ainul Mulk and the Revolt in Gujarat:
• Ainul Mulk, the governor of Gujarat, rebelled against Tughlaq’s authority. The rebellion was part of a broader pattern of dissatisfaction with Tughlaq’s harsh policies and unpredictable rule.
• Revolt of Foreign Amirs in Daulatabad (1337):
• The foreign nobles stationed in Daulatabad, dissatisfied with Tughlaq’s rule, rebelled and attempted to capture the city. The revolt was eventually suppressed, but it highlighted the deep-seated unrest within the empire.
• Establishment of the Bahmani Kingdom:
• Hasan Gangu Bahmani, a former general under Tughlaq, led a successful revolt in the Deccan, capturing Daulatabad and founding the Bahmani Kingdom in 1347. This marked the permanent loss of the Deccan region from the Delhi Sultanate’s control.

Economic Policies and Decline

Muhammad bin Tughlaq’s introduction of token currency earned him the moniker “Prince of Moneyers,” as he attempted to revolutionize the economy through innovative but ultimately disastrous policies. The failure of the token currency led to widespread economic instability, with every household, particularly among Hindus, turning into a mint to produce counterfeit coins, further exacerbating the crisis.

Khalifa of Cairo and Religious Controversy

In 1345, Muhammad bin Tughlaq was recognized as the legitimate ruler of India by the Khalifa of Cairo, providing him with a degree of religious legitimacy. However, his harsh punishments and erratic behavior led many to question his piety. Ibn Battuta, who served as a Qazi (judge) in Delhi under Tughlaq, documented the Sultan’s reign in his travelogue, Rehla, and criticized Tughlaq for his cruelty, noting the frequent execution of rebels and dissidents.

The Famine and Diwan-e-Kohi

During his reign, a severe famine struck the northern parts of India, further weakening the empire. In response, Muhammad bin Tughlaq established the Diwan-e-Kohi, a separate department of agriculture, to improve agricultural productivity and alleviate the famine. However, the department’s efforts were largely unsuccessful, and the famine persisted, contributing to the decline of Tughlaq’s popularity.

Death and Legacy

Muhammad bin Tughlaq died in 1351, exhausted by the continuous rebellions and failures that had plagued his reign. Despite his grand ambitions, his rule is often remembered for its failures rather than its successes.

Firuz Shah Tughlaq (1351-1388) – The Peaceful Sultan

Military Campaigns:
Firuz Shah Tughlaq ascended the throne reluctantly, fearing the immense responsibility. Unlike his predecessor, Firuz Shah was a peace-loving ruler, focusing on administration rather than conquest. However, his military campaigns were largely unsuccessful:

• Expeditions against Bengal (1353-1359):
• Firuz Shah led campaigns against Haji Ilyas of Bengal but was forced to retreat. In 1359, he besieged the fort of Bengal, leading to a peace settlement with Haji Ilyas’s son, Sikander Shah.
• Other Expeditions:
• His other military expeditions, such as those against the Rajputs and in the south, also ended in failure, further diminishing the empire’s territorial control.

Administrative Reforms:
Firuz Shah’s reign was notable for several administrative reforms:

• He reintroduced the Jagir system, which had been abolished by Alauddin Khilji.
• He levied four kinds of taxes according to Quranic law: Kharaj (land tax), Zakat (charity tax), Jizya (tax on non-Muslims), and Khums (one-fifth of war booty).
• Firuz Shah also focused on public welfare, constructing 150 wells and 4 canals, establishing a department of charity (Diwan-e-Khairat), and founding a free hospital in Delhi (Dar-us-Shafa).

Cultural Contributions:
Firuz Shah established a new capital at Firuzabad and removed two monoliths of Ashoka from Delhi, displaying them prominently. His reign also saw the rise of his minister, Khan-i-Jahan Maqbool, who became powerful towards the end of Firuz Shah’s reign.

Slavery:
Firuz Shah Tughlaq maintained a large number of slaves, reportedly numbering 18,000 at one point. These slaves were used for various administrative and public works, reflecting the Sultan’s reliance on a vast, controlled labor force.

Death and Succession:
Firuz Shah died in 1388, and his death marked the beginning of the decline of the Tughlaq dynasty. His grandson, Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq II, succeeded him but was soon murdered by his cousin Abu Bakar. The subsequent rulers, including Nasiruddin Muhammad, were unable to hold the empire together.

The End of the Tughlaq Dynasty

Invasion of Timur:
The final blow to the Tughlaq dynasty came with the invasion of Timur in 1398. Timur’s forces sacked Delhi in 1399, leaving the city in ruins. He appointed Khizr Khan as his viceroy in India, effectively ending the Tughlaq dynasty’s control.

Confusion over the Last Ruler:
There is some confusion regarding the last ruler of the Tughlaq dynasty.
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Confusion Over the Last Ruler of the Tughlaq Dynasty

The confusion surrounding the last ruler of the Tughlaq dynasty often arises from the overlapping and contested claims about the end of the dynasty’s rule. There are two main figures mentioned in this context: Nasiruddin Muhammad Tughlaq and Mahmud Shah Tughlaq. Here’s a breakdown of the two:

1. Nasiruddin Muhammad Tughlaq:

• Reign: Nasiruddin Muhammad Tughlaq was a ruler who ascended the throne after the death of his father, Sultan Humayun, around 1394. His reign was marked by internal strife and the weakening of the Tughlaq dynasty. Nasiruddin’s reign saw the empire shrink due to revolts and the rise of independent states.
• End of Reign: Nasiruddin Muhammad Tughlaq’s rule ended in the chaos following the invasion of Timur. After Timur’s departure in 1399, the Tughlaq empire was in disarray, and Nasiruddin’s authority was largely nominal, with real power fragmented among local rulers and rival factions.

1. Mahmud Shah Tughlaq:

• Reign: Mahmud Shah Tughlaq (sometimes referred to as Mahmud Nasiruddin in some sources) is often considered the last significant ruler of the Tughlaq dynasty. He ascended the throne around 1399-1400, after the reign of Nasiruddin Muhammad Tughlaq.
• Conflict with Khizr Khan: Mahmud Shah’s rule was challenged by Khizr Khan, the founder of the Sayyid dynasty, who was appointed as Timur’s viceroy in India. Khizr Khan gradually consolidated power and eventually became the de facto ruler, although Mahmud Shah nominally remained the sultan until his death in 1413.

1. Possible Overlap: The confusion may stem from the overlap in the titles and the period of their reigns. In some accounts, Nasiruddin Muhammad Tughlaq and Mahmud Shah Tughlaq may be treated as distinct individuals, while in others, Mahmud Shah might be considered a continuation of Nasiruddin’s lineage or a separate ruler altogether.
2. End of the Tughlaq Dynasty: Mahmud Shah Tughlaq is generally regarded as the last ruler of the Tughlaq dynasty. His death in 1413 marks the end of the Tughlaq dynasty’s reign, leading to the rise of the Sayyid dynasty under Khizr Khan.

The *Mamluk Dynasty, also known as the *Slave Dynasty, was the first of the Delhi Sultanates, ruling from 1206 to 1290. The dynasty was founded by Qutb-ud-din Aibak, a former slave of Sultan Muhammad Ghuri, and it included several notable rulers who played key roles in the establishment and consolidation of Muslim rule in India. Below is a comprehensive overview of the Mamluk Dynasty, including its rulers, key events, battles, architectural achievements, and relevant information that could be potential questions in an exam.

Qutb-ud-din Aibak (Reign: 1206-1210)

• Background: Qutb-ud-din Aibak was originally a slave purchased by Muhammad Ghuri, who eventually rose to become the Sultan of Delhi after Ghuri’s assassination in 1206. He is known as the founder of the Mamluk Dynasty in India.
• *Reign: After Muhammad Ghuri’s death, Qutb-ud-din declared independence and established his rule in Delhi. He took the title of *Sultan but did not issue coins or have the Khutba read in his name, showing his initial reluctance to assert full sovereignty.
• Achievements:
• *Construction: He began the construction of the *Qutub Minar in Delhi, which was later completed by Iltutmish. He also started building the Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque, the first mosque built in Delhi.
• Military Campaigns: Aibak consolidated control over northern India, securing territories in present-day Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, and Bengal.
• *Death: Qutb-ud-din Aibak died in 1210 due to a fall from a horse while playing *Chaugan (Polo) in Lahore. He was buried in Lahore, where his tomb is located.

Aram Shah (Reign: 1210-1211)

• Background: Aram Shah succeeded Qutb-ud-din Aibak but his legitimacy as a ruler is disputed. He is believed to have been either a son or a close relative of Aibak.
• Reign: His reign was brief and largely ineffective, marked by internal instability and lack of support from the nobility.
• *End of Reign: Aram Shah was defeated by *Iltutmish, a former slave and loyal general of Aibak, in a battle near Delhi. Iltutmish then ascended the throne, marking the end of Aram Shah’s rule.

Shams-ud-din Iltutmish (Reign: 1211-1236)

• Background: Iltutmish was originally a Turkic slave purchased by Qutb-ud-din Aibak, who later appointed him as the governor of Badaun. After defeating Aram Shah, Iltutmish became the Sultan of Delhi.
• Reign:
• Consolidation of Power: Iltutmish spent the early years of his reign consolidating his power by subduing rebellious nobles and expanding the Sultanate’s territories.
• Military Campaigns:

  • Battle against Yildiz (1216): Iltutmish defeated Taj-ud-din Yildiz, the former governor of Ghazni, who had challenged Iltutmish’s authority over Delhi.
  • Battle against Qabacha: He also defeated Nasir-ud-din Qabacha, the ruler of Sindh and Multan, thereby solidifying his control over the western frontiers.
  • Defeat of the Khwarazm Shahs: Iltutmish successfully repelled an invasion by the Khwarazm Shahs, a dynasty displaced by the Mongols.

• Architectural Contributions:

  • Qutub Minar: Iltutmish completed the construction of the Qutub Minar, which was started by Qutb-ud-din Aibak.
  • Tomb of Iltutmish: He constructed his own tomb in the Qutb complex, which is one of the earliest examples of Islamic architecture in India.
  • *Hauz-i-Shamsi: He built the *Hauz-i-Shamsi, a large reservoir in Delhi, to address the water needs of the city.

• Administrative Reforms:

  • *Introduction of Silver Tanka and Copper Jittal: Iltutmish introduced a uniform currency system, which included the silver *Tanka and the copper Jittal. This system was later adopted by subsequent sultans and became the standard currency of the Delhi Sultanate.
  • *Iqta System: Iltutmish is credited with institutionalizing the *Iqta system, where land was granted to military officials and nobles in exchange for their services.

• Mongol Threat: Iltutmish skillfully managed the Mongol threat by diplomatically recognizing the suzerainty of the Mongol ruler Genghis Khan while maintaining his autonomy.
• Death: Iltutmish died in 1236, leaving behind a strong and stable Sultanate. His death marked the beginning of a period of turmoil and succession disputes.

Rukn-ud-din Firuz (Reign: 1236)

• Background: Rukn-ud-din Firuz was the eldest son of Iltutmish and briefly ascended the throne after his father’s death.
• Reign: His reign was short-lived, lasting only a few months. He was known for his indulgent lifestyle and was unable to command the respect of the nobility or the army.
• *End of Reign: Rukn-ud-din was deposed and assassinated by the nobility and his half-sister, *Razia Sultan, was placed on the throne.

Razia Sultan (Reign: 1236-1240)

• Background: Razia Sultan was the daughter of Iltutmish and is notable for being the first and only female Sultan of Delhi.
• Reign:
• Challenges to Her Rule: Razia faced significant opposition from the Turkish nobles (Chihalgani or the Forty), who were against a woman ruling the Sultanate. Despite this, she demonstrated remarkable administrative and military skills.
• Military Campaigns: Razia successfully quelled rebellions in various parts of the Sultanate and maintained her authority over Delhi.
• Relationship with Jamal-ud-din Yaqut: Razia’s close relationship with her Abyssinian slave, Jamal-ud-din Yaqut, led to further alienation from the Turkish nobility.
• *Deposition and Death: Razia was eventually overthrown by the nobles and was imprisoned. She briefly regained power with the support of Altunia, the governor of Bhatinda, whom she married. However, they were both defeated and killed by the forces of her brother *Muizuddin Bahram Shah in 1240.

Muizuddin Bahram Shah (Reign: 1240-1242)

• Background: Bahram Shah was a son of Iltutmish and was placed on the throne after Razia’s overthrow.
• *Reign: His reign was marked by internal strife and the growing power of the *Chihalgani, the group of forty nobles who wielded considerable influence.
• End of Reign: Bahram Shah was eventually deposed and killed by the nobles in 1242 due to his inability to control the Chihalgani.

Nasiruddin Mahmud (Reign: 1246-1266)

• *Background: Nasiruddin Mahmud was a grandson of Iltutmish and was placed on the throne by *Ghiyas-ud-din Balban, who was the de facto ruler during Nasiruddin’s reign.
• Reign:
• Nominal Ruler: Nasiruddin Mahmud was more interested in religious pursuits and left the administration of the Sultanate to Balban, his father-in-law and the most powerful noble at the time.
• End of Reign: Nasiruddin Mahmud died in 1266, and with his death, Balban assumed full control of the Sultanate.

Ghiyas-ud-din Balban (Reign: 1266-1287)

• Background: Ghiyas-ud-din Balban was a former slave who rose to prominence during the reign of Iltutmish and later became the Sultan of Delhi.
• Reign:
• Consolidation of Power: Balban is known for his strict and efficient administration. He ruthlessly crushed rebellions and reasserted the authority of the Sultanate.
• Military Campaigns:

  • Against the Mongols: Balban successfully defended the Sultanate against Mongol invasions by fortifying the north-western frontier and establishing a strong defensive system.
  • *Rebellion of the Meos: He suppressed the rebellion of the *Meos (a Rajput tribe) in the Mewat region.

• *Introduction of Persian Etiquette: Balban introduced Persian court customs, including *Sijda (prostration before the Sultan) and Paibos (kissing the Sultan’s feet), to assert the Sultan’s divine right to rule.
• Architectural Contributions: Balban’s reign saw the construction of several forts and palaces.
  Certainly! Let’s continue with the final years of the Mamluk Dynasty, covering the successors of Ghiyas-ud-din Balban and the eventual decline of the dynasty.

Muiz-ud-din Qaiqabad (Reign: 1287-1290)

• Background: After the death of Ghiyas-ud-din Balban in 1287, his grandson Muiz-ud-din Qaiqabad was placed on the throne. Qaiqabad was the son of Bughra Khan, Balban’s son who ruled Bengal.
• Reign:
• Weak Rule: Qaiqabad was known for his indulgent lifestyle and lack of interest in governance. His reign was marked by internal instability and the weakening of central authority.
• *Rise of Jalal-ud-din Khalji: During his reign, the Turkish nobles lost their influence, and the rise of the *Khalji clan began. Jalal-ud-din Khalji, who was a prominent general and a member of the Khalji tribe, gained significant power.
• End of Reign: Qaiqabad suffered from a paralytic stroke, which further weakened his position. In 1290, he was murdered by a faction of nobles who then placed his infant son, Shams-ud-din Kayumars, on the throne.

Shams-ud-din Kayumars (Reign: 1290)

• Background: Shams-ud-din Kayumars was the infant son of Qaiqabad and the last ruler of the Mamluk Dynasty.
• Reign:
• Brief and Nominal Rule: Kayumars’ reign was merely nominal, as he was a child and had no real power. The actual control of the Sultanate was in the hands of the nobles.
• *End of the Mamluk Dynasty: Jalal-ud-din Khalji, who had gained considerable influence, assassinated Kayumars and seized the throne, thereby establishing the *Khalji Dynasty and bringing an end to the Mamluk Dynasty in 1290.

Decline of the Mamluk Dynasty

• End of the Dynasty: The Mamluk Dynasty came to an end in 1290 when Jalal-ud-din Khalji overthrew the last Mamluk ruler, Shams-ud-din Kayumars, and founded the Khalji Dynasty. The Mamluks, also known as the Slave Dynasty, ruled for 84 years and laid the foundation for Muslim rule in northern India.
• Legacy: The Mamluk rulers are remembered for their architectural contributions, administrative reforms, and the establishment of a strong and stable Sultanate that survived numerous challenges, including the Mongol invasions.

Major Battles, Architecture, and Reforms

• Key Battles:
• Battle against Yildiz (1216): Iltutmish’s defeat of Yildiz solidified his rule over Delhi.
• Mongol Invasions: Throughout their reign, the Mamluk rulers, particularly Balban, successfully defended the Sultanate against Mongol incursions.
• Rebellions: Numerous internal rebellions, such as those by the Meos and the Khokhars, were quelled by the Mamluk Sultans.
• Architectural Contributions:
• Qutub Minar: Started by Qutb-ud-din Aibak and completed by Iltutmish.
• Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque: The first mosque built in Delhi, initiated by Qutb-ud-din Aibak.
• Tomb of Iltutmish: One of the earliest examples of Islamic architecture in India.
• Hauz-i-Shamsi: A large reservoir in Delhi built by Iltutmish.
• Reforms:
• Iqta System: Institutionalized by Iltutmish, this system of land grants became a cornerstone of the Sultanate’s administration.
• Currency Reforms: Iltutmish introduced the silver Tanka and copper Jittal, standardizing the currency system in the Sultanate.
• Persian Court Etiquette: Introduced by Balban to assert the Sultan’s authority and establish a formal court culture.

Notable Dates and Figures

• 1206: Qutb-ud-din Aibak establishes the Mamluk Dynasty.
• 1210: Death of Qutb-ud-din Aibak.
• 1211: Iltutmish ascends the throne.
• 1236: Death of Iltutmish, followed by the brief reigns of Rukn-ud-din Firuz and Razia Sultan.
• 1266: Nasiruddin Mahmud dies; Balban becomes Sultan.
• 1287: Death of Balban; Qaiqabad ascends the throne.
• 1290: End of the Mamluk Dynasty with the rise of the Khalji Dynasty

1. Ghurids’ Early Relationship with the Ghaznavids:

• The Ghurids, originally vassals of the Ghaznavid Empire, served loyally under Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni. Their loyalty was a significant factor in the stability of the Ghaznavid Empire during Mahmud’s reign.
• Additional Info: The Ghurids were primarily a tribal confederation from the mountainous region of Ghor in present-day Afghanistan, and their initial rise to power was largely due to their military prowess and strategic location.

1. Conflict with Bahram Shah:

• Tensions between the Ghurids and the Ghaznavids escalated when Bahram Shah, a descendant of Sultan Mahmud, murdered Qutubuddin, a Ghurid prince. Qutubuddin was not just a prince but also a crucial leader within the Ghurid confederation.
• Additional Info: Qutubuddin’s death marked a turning point, leading to a long-standing enmity between the Ghurids and the Ghaznavids. This conflict weakened the Ghaznavids, making them vulnerable to external threats.

1. Alauddin Jahansoz’s Retaliation:

• Alauddin of Ghur, also known as Jahansoz (“World Burner”), retaliated against Bahram Shah by sacking the city of Ghazni for seven days, during which time he ordered the massacre of its inhabitants. This act was driven by both personal vengeance and a strategic desire to weaken the Ghaznavid hold on the region.
• Additional Info: The title “Jahansoz” reflects not only the scale of destruction he wrought upon Ghazni but also his broader ambitions to expand Ghurid influence at the expense of the Ghaznavids.

1. Khusru Shah’s Defeat:

• Khusru Shah, the last significant Ghaznavid ruler, attempted to reclaim the former glory of his dynasty but was defeated and killed by Muhammad bin Sam (later known as Muizzuddin) in 1191.
• Additional Info: Khusru Shah’s defeat marked the effective end of the Ghaznavid Empire, with its territories either absorbed by the Ghurids or falling into disarray.

1. Succession in the Ghurid Dynasty:

• After the death of Alauddin, his son Saifuddin briefly ascended to the throne but was killed in battle against the Ghuzz Turks. The Ghurid nobles, recognizing the need for strong leadership, raised Alauddin’s nephew, Ghiyassuddin, to power.
• Additional Info: Ghiyassuddin was instrumental in consolidating Ghurid power, particularly by reoccupying Ghazni and restoring the region’s status as a key center of the empire. His appointment of his brother Muhammad bin Sam as the governor of Ghazni laid the groundwork for the latter’s future conquests.

1. Muhammad bin Sam’s Ascendancy:

• Muhammad bin Sam, also known as Muizzuddin, assumed the title of Shihabuddin upon becoming the governor of Ghazni. Upon ascending the throne, he took the title of Muizzuddin and embarked on a series of campaigns to expand Ghurid influence in the Indian subcontinent.
• Additional Info: The titles “Shihabuddin” and “Muizzuddin” reflect his growing influence and ambitions. As “Shihabuddin,” he was seen as the protector of the Ghurid frontiers, while “Muizzuddin” indicated his role as a promoter of the faith, particularly in his conquests in India.

1. Conquests in India:

• Multan Campaign (1175): Muhammad Ghuri’s first major invasion was directed at Multan, a strategic city that controlled access to the lower Indus Valley.
• Battle of Anhilwara (1178): His attempt to conquer Gujarat by attacking Anhilwara (modern-day Patan) ended in a significant defeat at the hands of Bhim II, a Solanki ruler.
• First Battle of Tarain (1191): Muhammad Ghuri’s attempt to expand his empire into northern India met with stiff resistance from Prithvi Raj Chauhan, who defeated him near Tarain.
• Second Battle of Tarain (1192): Determined to avenge his defeat, Muhammad Ghuri returned the following year with a larger army and used superior military tactics, such as feigned retreats, to decisively defeat and kill Prithvi Raj Chauhan.
• Additional Info: The Second Battle of Tarain is often regarded as one of the most pivotal battles in Indian history, as it effectively paved the way for the establishment of Muslim rule in northern India. This battle is seen as the true beginning of the Delhi Sultanate.

1. Role of Qutubuddin Aibak:

• Qutubuddin Aibak, Muhammad Ghuri’s most trusted general, played a crucial role in consolidating Ghurid conquests in India. He was instrumental in establishing Muslim rule in Delhi and later became the first Sultan of Delhi, founding the Mamluk Dynasty.
• Additional Info: Qutubuddin Aibak’s administration laid the foundation for the later expansion of the Delhi Sultanate under his successors. His reign marked the beginning of a new era of centralized Muslim rule in the subcontinent.

1. Ikhtiyaruddin Bakhtiyar Khilji:

• Ikhtiyaruddin Bakhtiyar Khilji, a lieutenant of Qutubuddin Aibak, was responsible for the conquest of Bengal. His capture of Nadia, the then capital of Bengal, was a significant achievement, as it expanded Muslim rule into eastern India.
• Additional Info: Bakhtiyar Khilji’s campaigns in Bengal were marked by rapid success and a ruthless approach, which included the destruction of ancient universities like Nalanda. His death at Devkot in 1206, under mysterious circumstances, left the newly conquered territories in a precarious state.

1. Muhammad Ghuri’s Final Years and Death:

   • After the death of his brother Ghiyassuddin in 1203, Muhammad Ghuri became the uncontested ruler of the Ghurid Empire. He continued to expand his territories and consolidate his rule until his assassination by a Khokhar tribesman near Damik (in the Jhelum district) in 1206.
   • Additional Info: Muhammad Ghuri’s death marked the end of the Ghurid Empire’s expansion. However, his legacy lived on through his lieutenants, particularly Qutubuddin Aibak, who continued to rule over the Indian territories as the first Sultan of Delhi.

2. Comparison with Mahmud of Ghazni:

   • Unlike Mahmud of Ghazni, who was primarily focused on plundering wealth from India, Muhammad Ghuri is remembered as an empire-builder. His conquests were not just raids but were aimed at establishing permanent Muslim rule in the region.
   • Additional Info: Mahmud of Ghazni, despite being a plunderer, is also celebrated for his patronage of the arts and culture. He commissioned the construction of the “Celestial Bride” or the Jamia Masjid of Ghazni, one of the most magnificent mosques of its time.

3. Cultural and Scholarly Patronage:

   • Muhammad Ghuri was a patron of scholars like Fakhruddin Razi, who thrived under his rule. This support for intellectuals contrasted with his military campaigns, showcasing his dual role as both a conqueror and a patron of culture.
   • Additional Info: The Ghurid Empire, under Ghuri’s rule, became a center of Islamic learning and culture, attracting scholars from across the Muslim world. This intellectual atmosphere helped lay the groundwork for the cultural renaissance that would later flourish under the Delhi Sultanate.

4. Legacy and Historical Perception:

   • While Muhammad Ghuri is often overshadowed by Mahmud of Ghazni in historical narratives, his contributions to the establishment of Muslim rule in the Indian subcontinent are undeniable. His victories, especially at Tarain, are seen as the foundation of the Muslim Empire in India.
   • Additional Info: Historians like Lane-Poole have noted that while Ghuri may not have had the same immediate impact as Mahmud of Ghazni, his long-term influence on the subcontinent was profound, particularly in terms of governance and the spread of Islam.

1. Abbasid Caliphate and Early Background:

• 750 CE: The Abbasid Caliphate replaced the Umayyad Caliphate after the Battle of the Zab.
• Samanid Dynasty: The Samanids were a Persian dynasty that ruled from 819 to 999 CE, with their capital at Bukhara. They played a crucial role in the rise of the Ghaznavids.
• Alptigin: He was initially a slave of Abdul Malik, the 5th prince of the Samanid Dynasty. Alptigin rose through the ranks to become a general and then the governor of Khurasan, a key region in the Samanid Empire.

2. Foundation of the Ghaznavid Empire:

• 962 CE: Alptigin seized the city of Ghazni by expelling its ruler, Abu Bakr Lawik. This marked the beginning of the Ghaznavid Empire.
• Succession after Alptigin:
• Alptigin’s son, Abu Ishaq Ibrahim, succeeded him but ruled for a very short period.
• Sabuktigin (977-997 CE): A former slave of Alptigin, Sabuktigin was chosen as the ruler after Abu Ishaq’s death. He consolidated power and expanded the Ghaznavid Empire, particularly in the Indian subcontinent.

3. Sabuktigin’s Rule and Military Campaigns:

• Conflict with Jaypal:
• Jaypal I: The Hindu Shahi ruler of Punjab, Jaypal, attempted to curb the rising power of Sabuktigin by attacking him. However, Jaypal was defeated and agreed to pay a tribute of 1 million dirhams.
• Kabul and Zabulistan: These regions were annexed by Sabuktigin, and he extended his control over the frontier towns near the Khyber Pass.
• First Muslim Invasion of India: Sabuktigin’s invasions are often considered the precursor to the more extensive campaigns led by his son, Mahmud of Ghazni.

4. Succession and the Rise of Mahmud of Ghazni:

• 997 CE: Sabuktigin died and appointed his younger son, Ismail, as his successor, but this decision was contested by his elder son, Mahmud.
• 998 CE: Mahmud of Ghazni defeated Ismail in a battle near Ghazni, imprisoned him, and took control of the empire.
• Mahmud’s Titles: He was the first ruler to adopt the title “Sultan” and was formally recognized by the Abbasid Caliph Al-Qadir Billah, who bestowed upon him the titles Yamin-ud-Dawlah (Right Hand of the State) and Amin-ul-Millah (Trustee of the Faith). This gave rise to the term Yamini Dynasty.

5. Mahmud’s Military Expeditions:

• 1000-1026 CE: Mahmud led 17 significant military campaigns into India. He aimed to establish Ghaznavid control over northern India and plunder its wealth.
• First Expedition (1000 CE): Against the frontier towns near the Khyber Pass.
• Second Expedition (1001 CE): Against Jaypal of Punjab. Mahmud defeated Jaypal at the Battle of Peshawar. Following his defeat, Jaypal self-immolated, and his son Anandpal succeeded him.
• Fourth Expedition (1008 CE): Mahmud faced Anandpal in the Battle of Waihind near the Indus River. Anandpal formed a confederation of Hindu kings but was ultimately defeated by Mahmud.
• Expeditions against Multan: Mahmud targeted Abul Fateh Daud, the Ismaili ruler of Multan, to curb the spread of Ismailism in the region.
• Expeditions against Kashmir (1015-1021 CE): Mahmud made two attempts to conquer Kashmir but failed on both occasions.
• 1018 CE: Mahmud captured Mathura and Kanauj, major centers of Hinduism. He plundered their wealth, and his armies desecrated the temples, including the famous Keshava Rai Temple in Mathura.
• 1026 CE: The most significant expedition was against the Somnath Temple in Gujarat. Mahmud sacked the temple, taking immense wealth back to Ghazni. The destruction of Somnath has been detailed by historian Ibn-ul-Athir.

6. Mahmud’s Administrative and Cultural Legacy:

• Conquests in Central Asia: Mahmud also focused on Central Asia, defeating the Qarakhanids and extending his influence in the region.
• Court and Scholars:
• Utbi: The court historian, who wrote “Kitab al-Yamini,” a chronicle of Mahmud’s reign.
• Firdousi: The celebrated poet who authored the Shahnama (Book of Kings), an epic recounting the history of Persia. He is known as the “Homer of the East” due to the Shahnama’s significance and scope, comparable to Homer’s Iliad and Odyssey.
• Al-Biruni: A polymath and contemporary of Mahmud who accompanied him on several campaigns. He wrote the “Kitab al-Hind,” a comprehensive account of Indian culture, religion, and science.
• Unsari: A famous poet in Mahmud’s court, known for his literary works that celebrated Mahmud’s victories.

7. Succession After Mahmud’s Death:

• 1030 CE: Mahmud died in Ghazni after an illness. He was succeeded by his son Masud I.
• Conflict Between Masud I and Muhammad:
• Masud I: Initially succeeded Mahmud but faced challenges from his brother Muhammad. Masud I eventually imprisoned Muhammad and blinded him.
• Masud’s Downfall: Masud I was defeated by the Seljuk Turks at the Battle of Dandanaqan in 1040 CE, leading to his deposition.
• Muhammad’s Reinstatement: After Masud I’s defeat, Muhammad was reinstated briefly before being murdered by his nephew Ahmad, the son of Masud I.
• Maudood: Masud’s son, Maudood, avenged his father’s death by killing the entire family of Muhammad. Maudood ruled until his death in 1049 CE after a weak and troubled reign of nine years.

8. Decline of the Ghaznavid Empire:

• Wars with the Ghurids: The Ghaznavids eventually faced the rising power of the Ghurid dynasty.
• Bahram Shah (1117-1157 CE): The last significant ruler of the Ghaznavids, Bahram Shah, killed Qutbuddin, a Ghurid chief, which escalated conflicts between the two dynasties.
• End of the Ghaznavid Empire:

  • Khusrau Malik (1160-1186 CE): The last ruler of the Ghaznavid dynasty. He was defeated by Muhammad of Ghor in 1191 CE, marking the end of the Ghaznavid Empire and the rise of Ghurid dominance in the region.

Background and Pre-Invasion Events

The invasion of Sindh by Muhammad bin Qasim in 711- 712 AD is one of the earliest and most significant Muslim military expeditions into the Indian subcontinent. This event marked the beginning of Islamic rule in the region.

1. Context of the Invasion:

• The Umayyad Caliphate, under Caliph Al-Walid I, was expanding its territories in the early 8th century. The caliphate had already established control over Persia and parts of Central Asia, and now sought to expand into the Indian subcontinent.
• During the reign of Caliph Umar ibn al-Khattab (RA), the first attempts to invade India were made, but they were unsuccessful. These early attempts set the stage for future invasions, including that of Muhammad bin Qasim.

1. The Role of Hajjaj bin Yusuf:

• The actual instigator of the Sindh campaign was Hajjaj bin Yusuf, the governor of the eastern provinces of the Umayyad Caliphate. He played a crucial role in organizing and financing the expedition.
• Muhammad bin Qasim, a young and skilled general, was appointed by Hajjaj to lead the campaign. He was also the nephew and son-in-law of Hajjaj bin Yusuf.

1. Incidents Leading to the Invasion:

• The immediate cause of the invasion was the piracy in the Arabian Sea. A ship carrying gifts from the king of Sri Lanka to the Caliph Al-Walid I was attacked by pirates near the coast of Sindh. The pirates took prisoners, including women and children.
• Hajjaj bin Yusuf sent a letter to Raja Dahir of Sindh, demanding the release of the captives and compensation for the attack. Dahir, however, claimed that the pirates were beyond his control. This refusal provided the pretext for the invasion.

The Invasion and Conquest of Sindh

1. The Expedition Begins:

• In 711 AD, Muhammad bin Qasim set out from Persia with a well-prepared army. He first landed at Debal (modern-day Karachi), which was a significant port city of Sindh.
• The city of Debal was quickly captured, and a mosque was built to signify the Islamic conquest.

1. Battle of Rawar:

• After capturing Debal, Muhammad bin Qasim moved towards Nerun (near modern Hyderabad) and then faced serious resistance at Rawar, where Raja Dahir was stationed.
• The Battle of Rawar was intense, but ultimately, Muhammad bin Qasim defeated and killed Raja Dahir. This victory paved the way for further conquests in Sindh.

1. The Fall of Alor and Multan:

• After the fall of Rawar, Muhammad bin Qasim marched towards Alor (modern-day Rohri), which was the capital of Sindh. Here, Dahir’s son, Fufi, attempted to defend the city but was defeated.
• Following the conquest of Alor, Muhammad bin Qasim proceeded to capture Multan, which marked the end of the campaign. Multan, known as the “City of Gold,” was a wealthy city and its capture significantly enriched the Umayyad Caliphate.

Aftermath and Legacy

1. End of Dahir’s Dynasty:

• The fall of Sindh led to the end of Raja Dahir’s dynasty. His wife and other women in his household chose to commit self-immolation (Jauhar) to avoid capture.
• The conquest of Sindh was significant as it established Islamic rule in the region, which lasted for centuries.

1. Muhammad bin Qasim’s Downfall:

• Despite his successes, Muhammad bin Qasim’s fate took a tragic turn. After the death of Caliph Al-Walid I, his successor, Caliph Sulayman ibn Abd al-Malik, ordered the execution of Muhammad bin Qasim. The reason was political rivalry and Hajjaj bin Yusuf’s falling out with the new caliph.
• Muhammad bin Qasim was reportedly tortured and killed, and his body was sent back to Iraq in disgrace.