1. Reign of Aurangzeb (1658–1707)

• The Mughal Empire reached its maximum territorial expansion during Aurangzeb’s reign, but his religious policies, prolonged wars, and depletion of the treasury marked the beginning of its decline.

2. War of Succession (1707–1712)

• After Aurangzeb’s death in 1707, a war of succession broke out between his three sons:

1. Mauzzam (Shah Alam I, later Bahadur Shah I)
2. Azam Shah
3. Kambakhsh

• Mauzzam, the eldest, defeated his brothers and ascended the throne as Bahadur Shah I.

3. Reign of Bahadur Shah I (1707–1712)

• *Conciliatory Policy: He adopted a more conciliatory policy towards the Rajputs and Marathas to maintain peace. He released *Shahu, son of Shambhaji (Maratha leader), which ultimately led to the resurgence of the Marathas as a powerful force.
• *Sikh Revolt: The Sikhs, under *Banda Bahadur, rose in revolt. Though Bahadur Shah suppressed the revolt, Banda escaped and continued to resist.

4. Death of Bahadur Shah I and Another War of Succession (1712–1713)

• After Bahadur Shah I’s death in 1712, a war of succession erupted among his four sons.
• Jahandar Shah secured the throne with the help of Zulfiqar Khan but was soon defeated and killed by his nephew Farrukhsiyar.

5. Reign of Farrukhsiyar (1713–1719)

• *Weak Ruler: Farrukhsiyar was weak and left governance to the *Sayyid Brothers (Sayyid Abdullah and Sayyid Hussain), who became the de facto rulers.
• Banda Bahadur’s Revolt: Banda Bahadur rose in rebellion again and was captured and executed in 1716.
• Farrukhsiyar’s Death: The Sayyid Brothers, in alliance with the Marathas, deposed and killed Farrukhsiyar in 1719.

6. Muhammad Shah (1719–1748)

• Rise of Muhammad Shah Rangeela: A weak and pleasure-loving ruler, he managed to get rid of the Sayyid Brothers.
• *Invasion of Nadir Shah (1739): The Mughal Empire faced a significant blow when **Nadir Shah, ruler of Persia, invaded and sacked Delhi, taking immense wealth, including the *Peacock Throne and Koh-i-Noor diamond.

7. Sikh Uprisings

• Sikhism and the Gurus:
• Guru Nanak was the founder of Sikhism, born in 1459 in Talwandi (now Nankana Sahib, Pakistan).
• Guru Arjun compiled the Granth Sahib and built the Golden Temple in Amritsar. His execution by Jahangir triggered the militarization of the Sikhs.
• The tenth guru, *Guru Gobinda Singh, founded the *Khalsa in 1699 (symbolized by the “five Ks”: *Kesh, **Kanga, **Kara, **Kachha, **Kirpan). He was assassinated in *1708 in Nander (Maharashtra).
• Banda Bahadur, appointed by Guru Gobinda Singh, led the Sikhs against the Mughal Empire and was eventually executed by Farrukhsiyar.

8. Decline Under Later Mughals

• After Muhammad Shah, the empire faced rapid decline:
• Ahmad Shah Abdali (Durrani), a former officer of Nadir Shah, invaded India multiple times, defeating the Marathas in the Third Battle of Panipat (1761).
• *Shah Alam II (1759–1806): He granted Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa to the *East India Company in 1765, signaling the growing influence of the British.

9. Rise of Independent States

• *Hyderabad: Founded by *Mir Qamar-ud-din (Chin Qilich Khan) as the Nizam of Hyderabad in 1724.
• *Oudh (Awadh): Founded by *Saadat Khan (Mir Muhammad Amin) as an independent state.

10. Last Mughal Emperor

• *Bahadur Shah II (1837–1857): The last Mughal ruler, confined to Delhi’s Red Fort. He was a nominal ruler during the *Indian Rebellion of 1857 (also called the Mutiny).
• After the rebellion, Bahadur Shah II was exiled to Rangoon (now Yangon, Myanmar), where he died in 1862.

11. Reasons for Decline of the Mughal Empire

• Incapable leadership after Aurangzeb.
• Frequent wars of succession due to no clear law of succession.
• Deterioration of nobility and internal divisions.
• Military inefficiency and lack of patriotism.
• Financial strain due to prolonged wars.
• Vast territorial expansion made administration difficult.
• Continuous invasions (Nadir Shah, Ahmad Shah Abdali) and internal revolts (Marathas, Sikhs, Jats).

1. Coronation and Reign (1659 Onward)

• Formal Coronation (5th June 1659): Aurangzeb delayed his formal coronation to assert his legitimacy as the ruler after defeating his brothers in a bloody war of succession. This move marked the beginning of one of the longest reigns in Mughal history, lasting nearly 50 years.
• Restoration of Mughal Calendar: Aurangzeb restored the traditional Mughal lunar calendar and ended the “Din-i-Ilahi” era, a syncretic religion created by Akbar. This was symbolic of his return to orthodox Islamic practices.

2. Division of Aurangzeb’s Reign

• First Half of His Reign (1658-1681) – Northern India:
• During this period, Aurangzeb primarily focused on consolidating his rule in the northern part of India, facing challenges from various regions like the North-West Frontier and the Eastern regions.
• The most significant of these challenges came from the Ahoms, the Afghan tribes, and the Sikhs. His political and military campaigns were often centered around maintaining control over these regions and containing internal dissent.
• Campaigns Against the Ahoms:

  • The Ahoms, originally from Burma, had captured parts of Assam and the Brahmaputra Valley. In 1662, Aurangzeb sent Mir Jumla, the Governor of Bengal, to suppress them. Mir Jumla successfully captured large territories, but with the advent of the monsoon season, the Ahoms regained power. Mir Jumla fell ill and died in 1663, leaving his campaign incomplete.
  • Shaista Khan’s Role in the East: After Mir Jumla’s death, Shaista Khan, his son, was tasked with conquering Chittagong from the Arakanese king, which was successfully done in 1666, leading to the region being renamed Islamabad.

• Rebellion of the North-West Frontier Tribes:

  • The Afghan tribes on the North-West frontier, such as the Yusufzais and Afridis, proved to be an ongoing source of rebellion. In 1667, Bhagu Yusufzai led a revolt, which Aurangzeb suppressed. However, the Afridi rebellion in 1672, under Ajmal Khan, was more serious. Aurangzeb’s initial attempt to suppress the rebellion led by Muhammad Amin Khan ended in failure, particularly at the Battle of Ali Masjid.
  • Hasan Abdal Campaign (1674-1675): This failure prompted Aurangzeb to take charge himself. He personally directed the campaign from Hasan Abdal, and by the end of 1675, the situation had improved.

• Revolts in Mathura:

  • In 1669, the Jats of Mathura revolted after Aurangzeb’s officer, Sayyid Abdun Nabi, constructed a mosque in the Hindu-majority city. The Jats killed Abdun Nabi and desecrated the tomb of Akbar at Sikandarabad. Aurangzeb retaliated harshly against the Jats, leading to brutal suppression of the rebellion.

3. Second Half of His Reign (1682-1707) – The Deccan Campaign

• The Maratha Uprising:
• The Marathas, under Shivaji, were one of the most significant threats to the Mughal Empire. Shivaji was a formidable opponent who conducted guerilla warfare with his hillmen called Mawalis.
• In 1663, Shivaji raided Shaista Khan’s camp, killing his son and many Mughal soldiers. His successful campaigns continued throughout the 1670s, and by 1674, he was crowned king at Raigarh, establishing a powerful Maratha kingdom.
• Post-Shivaji Period: After Shivaji’s death in 1680, his son Shambhuji took up the struggle. However, Shambhuji was captured and executed in 1689. Despite this, the Marathas continued to resist under Rajaram and later, Shivaji III under Tara Bai.
• Conquests of Bijapur and Golkonda:
• In 1686, Aurangzeb defeated Sultan Adil Shah II of Bijapur, and in 1687, he conquered Golkonda, ending the rule of the Qutb Shahi dynasty.
• A Political Blunder? Many historians argue that the conquest of Bijapur and Golkonda was a strategic mistake as these states could have served as buffers against the rising power of the Marathas.
• Height of Power and Beginning of Decline (1696 Onwards):
• By 1696, Aurangzeb had reached the pinnacle of his power, having subdued much of South India. However, this period also marked the beginning of the empire’s decline due to the endless wars in the Deccan and growing internal instability.
• Aurangzeb’s final years were spent fighting the Marathas in an ultimately futile effort to fully subdue them.

4. Religious Policies

• Jizya Tax and Religious Conservatism:
• Aurangzeb’s imposition of the Jizya tax on non-Muslim subjects in 1679 marked a sharp departure from the more liberal religious policies of his predecessors like Akbar. This decision alienated a large portion of his subjects, contributing to the disintegration of the empire.
• Sikh Rebellion:
• Guru Tej Bahadur, the ninth Sikh Guru, was executed by Aurangzeb in 1675 for raising the banner of revolt. This act led to further conflict between the Sikhs and the Mughal Empire under Guru Gobind Singh, the tenth and last Sikh Guru, who organized the Sikh community militarily.

5. Architectural Contributions

Despite Aurangzeb’s conservative approach, he did contribute to Mughal architecture, although his reign was not as architecturally productive as that of his predecessors:

• Bibi ka Maqbara (Tomb of Dilras Banu Begum): Built in memory of his wife in Aurangabad in 1661, this monument bears a striking resemblance to the Taj Mahal, though on a smaller scale.
• Badshahi Mosque (1673): Located in Lahore, this mosque is one of the largest in the world and remains a major architectural legacy of Aurangzeb’s reign.

6. Major Figures of Aurangzeb’s Time

• Mir Jumla and Shaista Khan: Governors of Bengal, both played crucial roles in Aurangzeb’s campaigns against the Ahoms and Arakanese.
• Shivaji: The Maratha leader, who was the most significant challenger to Aurangzeb’s rule, remains a major figure in Indian history for his resistance against Mughal domination.
• Guru Gobind Singh: The last Sikh Guru who organized the Khalsa and continued the struggle against Mughal oppression.
• Prince Akbar: Aurangzeb’s rebellious son, who allied with the Marathas, further complicating the political scenario in the Deccan.

7. Failures of Aurangzeb’s Reign

As J.N. Sarkar famously said, “If the Spanish ulcer ruined Napoleon, the Deccan ulcer ruined Aurangzeb.” The long and draining wars in the Deccan were the primary reason for Aurangzeb’s failure. Additionally, the following factors contributed to the Mughal Empire’s decline:

• Unwieldy and Inefficient Army: The Mughal military was too large, inefficient, and outdated.
• Corruption and Rivalry among Generals: The empire’s leadership was fractured by internal rivalries and corruption.
• Guerrilla Tactics of the Marathas: The Marathas’ hit-and-run tactics wore down the Mughal forces over time.
• Natural Disasters: Frequent famines, floods, and pestilence further weakened the empire.

Shah Jahan’s Ascension and Struggle for Succession
After the death of Emperor Jahangir in October 1627 in Rajauri, the struggle for succession began between his two surviving sons, Shah Jahan and Shahrayar. Shah Jahan was supported by his father-in-law, Asaf Khan, while Shahrayar was backed by his mother-in-law, the influential Empress Nur Jahan. To manage the transition, Asaf Khan temporarily placed Dawar Bakhsh, the son of Khusrau (Jahangir’s rebellious son), as a stop-gap emperor. Simultaneously, Asaf Khan’s forces defeated Shahrayar’s troops, and Shahrayar was captured and blinded. Shah Jahan formally ascended the throne in February 1628. With his ascension, Nur Jahan retired from public life, receiving a pension of 2 lakhs annually until her death in 1645.

Marriage to Mumtaz Mahal and the Taj Mahal
Shah Jahan married Arjumand Banu Begum, later known as Mumtaz Mahal, in 1612, when he was 22. She was the daughter of Asaf Khan and the niece of Nur Jahan. Shah Jahan and Mumtaz Mahal shared a deep bond, and she became his trusted companion. Tragically, she died during childbirth in 1631, which deeply affected Shah Jahan. In her memory, he built the Taj Mahal, a monumental masterpiece of Mughal architecture, from 1632 to 1648 on the banks of the Yamuna River in Agra. The Taj Mahal, often referred to as the “Queen of Architecture” and a “Dream in Marble,” became an enduring symbol of love and Mughal grandeur.

Portuguese Conflict in Hugli (1632)
During Shah Jahan’s reign, the Portuguese had established settlements in Hugli (modern-day West Bengal) and engaged in activities that angered the Mughal administration. They imposed heavy duties on Indian traders, participated in the slave trade, converted Indians to Christianity, and even detained two slave girls of Mumtaz Mahal. In retaliation, Shah Jahan dispatched Qasim Khan to crush the Portuguese in 1632, which resulted in the capture of Hugli.

Famine of 1630-32
A severe famine struck the regions of Gujarat, Khandesh, and the Deccan between 1630 and 1632. The devastating famine led to widespread suffering, and Shah Jahan took several measures to provide relief, though the famine greatly impacted the economy and agrarian population.

Deccan and Aurangzeb’s Role
Shah Jahan left the Deccan in the charge of his third son, Aurangzeb, in 1636, after successfully quelling Shia dominance in the region. Aurangzeb continued to manage the affairs of the Deccan, focusing on improving its economic conditions by appointing Murshid Kuli Khan, who adopted Todar Mal’s revenue system to streamline financial administration.

Northwest Frontier Policy and Kandahar
During the latter part of Jahangir’s reign, the Mughals had lost control of Qandhar (present-day Afghanistan). However, Shah Jahan managed to reclaim suzerainty over Qandhar in 1638 through a strategic alliance with Ali Mardan, the governor of Qandhar, who defected from Persian allegiance. Despite securing Qandhar, Shah Jahan harbored ambitions of reclaiming Samarkand, the ancestral homeland of his Timurid ancestors. He attempted to conquer Samarkand three times but failed. These failures emboldened Shah Abbas II of Persia to recapture Qandhar in 1649.

Aurangzeb’s Resignation and Reappointment
Aurangzeb, who had been appointed as the Viceroy of Deccan, resigned in 1644 due to mistreatment by his brother Dara Shikoh. Dara, Shah Jahan’s favored son, often poisoned Shah Jahan’s mind against Aurangzeb. However, relations between Shah Jahan and Aurangzeb were restored in 1653, largely through the mediation of Shah Jahan’s daughter, Jahan Ara Begum. Aurangzeb was reappointed as the Viceroy of the Deccan, where he continued to manage the region’s affairs, focusing on its economic recovery.

War of Succession (1657-1658)
In September 1657, rumors of Shah Jahan’s illness and death triggered a war of succession among his four sons: Dara Shikoh, Shuja, Aurangzeb, and Murad. Dara Shikoh, the eldest, was Shah Jahan’s favorite and had the support of Jahan Ara Begum. On the other hand, Aurangzeb, the third son, was supported by Roshan Ara Begum. Shuja, the Governor of Bengal, was the first to declare his claim to the throne but was defeated by Dara’s forces in February 1658. Murad, then Governor of Gujarat, proclaimed his sovereignty and entered into an alliance with Aurangzeb. Together, they defeated the imperial forces at the Battle of Dharmat near Ujjain in April 1658 and again at the Battle of Samugarh in May 1658, where Dara Shikoh was decisively defeated.

After occupying Agra, Aurangzeb placed his father, Shah Jahan, under house arrest. He later arrested Murad, violating their agreement, and had him imprisoned and eventually executed in 1661 for killing his Diwan, Ali Naqi. Aurangzeb ascended the throne in July 1658, while Dara Shikoh attempted a final resistance but was eventually captured and executed. Shuja was defeated in 1659 and fled to Arakan, where he was killed.

Shah Jahan’s Confinement and Death
Shah Jahan remained imprisoned by Aurangzeb in the Agra Fort for eight long years. Despite his confinement, he was treated with relative respect, living a life of luxury under guard. Shah Jahan died in 1666 and was buried beside his beloved wife, Mumtaz Mahal, in the Taj Mahal.

Architecture Under Shah Jahan
Shah Jahan’s reign is often referred to as the “Golden Age of Mughal Architecture.” Besides the Taj Mahal, other architectural marvels were constructed during his reign:

1. Diwan-i-Aam and Diwan-i-Khas in the Red Fort of Delhi, where he conducted public and private audiences respectively.
2. Jama Masjid in Delhi, one of the largest mosques in India, constructed between 1650 and 1656.
3. Moti Masjid in Agra, known as the “Pearl Mosque,” built for private worship.
4. Peacock Throne, an opulent symbol of Mughal wealth and grandeur, encrusted with jewels, which was later taken by Nadir Shah of Persia.

Major Figures During Shah Jahan’s Reign

1. Abdul Hamid Lahori: The author of “Padshahnama,” the official history of Shah Jahan’s reign, which details important events, including battles, architectural achievements, and court affairs.
2. Inayat Khan: The author of “Shah Jahan Nama,” another significant work detailing the reign of Shah Jahan.
3. Muhammad Salih: The author of “Amal-i-Salih,” a historical chronicle of Shah Jahan’s period.
4. Mirza Muhammad Qasim: Author of “Alamgirnama,” critical of Dara Shikoh’s religious policies, believing that his rule would endanger the Islamic faith.

• Akbar’s Location at Humayun’s Death: When Humayun died, Akbar was at Kalanpur, a town in Punjab.
• Himu’s Role and Claim to the Throne:
  Himu, a claimant to the Mughal throne, was a strong adversary. He successfully conquered Delhi and Agra and even ascended the throne under the title “Vikramaditya.”
• The Second Battle of Panipat (1556):
  In 1556, Himu marched against the Mughals. Bairam Khan, the regent of Akbar, decisively defeated Himu at the Second Battle of Panipat. Himu was captured and killed, marking a significant victory for Akbar.
  Key Detail: This battle consolidated Mughal control over northern India and was pivotal in Akbar’s reign.

Bairam Khan and the Regency (1556-1560)

• Bairam Khan’s Loyalty to Humayun:
  Bairam Khan, a Turkoman and Shia by faith, served Humayun loyally. He was appointed governor of Qandhar and guardian (Atga) of Akbar, affectionately called “Khan-i-Baba” (Lord Father).
• Conspiracy Against Bairam Khan (1560):
  Akbar’s mother, Hamida Banu Begum, foster mother Maham Anaga, and foster brother Adam Khan conspired against Bairam Khan. This period is known as the “Petticoat Government” (1560-1562), marked by intrigue from the Atga Khail or Harem Party.
• Bairam Khan’s Downfall and Death:
  Due to jealousy among other courtiers and his high-handedness, Bairam Khan’s influence waned. After his revolt against Akbar, he was asked to go on a pilgrimage to Mecca. During this journey, he was assassinated in Patan, Gujarat.

Akbar’s Relationship with His Family

• Muhammad Hakim:
  Akbar’s half-brother, Muhammad Hakim, was made governor of Kabul. Later, he invaded Punjab but was defeated by Akbar’s forces and forgiven. He died in 1585 in Kabul under mysterious circumstances.
• Maham Anaga and Adam Khan:
  Akbar came under the influence of Maham Anaga and her son, Adam Khan, between 1560-1562. Adam Khan was later executed by Akbar for his insubordination and disregard for royal commands. Maham Anaga, grief-stricken by her son’s death, died shortly after.

Rajput Policy and Military Campaigns

• Marriage Alliances with Rajputs:
  Akbar sought to win the hearts of the Hindu majority, forming marriage alliances with Rajput rulers. The first to offer a daughter to Akbar was Raja Bihari Mal of Amber. Prominent Rajput leaders, such as Raja Todar Mal, Raja Bhagwan Das, and Raja Man Singh, became close allies of the Emperor.
  Key Question: What significance did Akbar’s marriage alliances with Rajputs hold in strengthening his empire?
• Fall of Chittor (1568):
  Akbar captured the strategic fort of Chittor in 1568 after a prolonged siege. The fall of Chittor made most Rajput kingdoms submit to Mughal authority, except for Rana Pratap Singh of Mewar.
• Battle of Haldighati (1576):
  Rana Pratap Singh was defeated by Akbar’s forces, led by Raja Man Singh, in the Battle of Haldighati in 1576. However, Rana Pratap retreated to the mountains and continued guerrilla warfare. His son, Amar Singh, eventually submitted to Akbar’s son, Jahangir, in 1615.
• Conquest of Gujarat (1572):
  Akbar marched against Muzaffar Shah III of Gujarat, who submitted in 1572. This conquest extended the Mughal Empire to the Arabian Sea, bringing Akbar into contact with the Portuguese.

Akbar’s Religious Policies and Reforms

• Sulah-i-Kul:
  Akbar followed the policy of Sulah-i-Kul (peace with all), advocating for religious tolerance. This was partly influenced by his teacher, Abdul Latif, a man of moderation.
• The Ibadat Khana:
  In 1575, Akbar built the Ibadat Khana (House of Worship) in Fatehpur Sikri, where scholars of various religions—Hindus, Muslims, Jains, and Christians—were invited for discussions. In 1579, Akbar even displaced the Chief Imam and read the Khutba himself at the Jama Masjid.
• Din-i-Ilahi (1582):
  Akbar introduced Din-i-Ilahi in 1582, an eclectic religious movement aimed at fostering unity among his subjects. However, it had limited following; only 18 members, including Birbal, joined.
• Influence of Mahdavi and Roshni Movements:
  Akbar was influenced by the Mahdavi movement, founded by Sayyid Mahmoud, and the Roshni movement of Pir Roshan, both of which promoted mysticism and spiritual reforms.
  Key Question: How did the religious movements of the Mahdavis and Roshni shape Akbar’s religious outlook?

Akbar’s Military and Administrative Systems

• Mansabdari System:
  Akbar introduced the Mansabdari system, a hierarchical military system where rank (mansab) determined the number of troops a commander could maintain.
• Provincial and Sarkar Administration:
  Akbar’s empire was divided into 15 provinces, each further divided into Sarkars (districts) and Parganas (sub-districts).
• Key Figures in Administration:
• Diwan (Finance Department): Managed revenue and finances. Todar Mal, an experienced administrator from Sher Shah’s reign, was instrumental in reforms.
• Mir Bakhshi (Military): Managed the imperial army.
• Khan-i-Saman (Imperial Household): Managed the Emperor’s household.
• Qazi-ul-Qazzat (Judiciary): Chief judicial officer of the empire.
• Mir Atish (Artillery): Managed the artillery.
• Land Classification:
  Akbar’s administration classified land into four categories for tax purposes:

1. Polaj: Land regularly cultivated.
2. Parauti: Fallow for some part of the year.
3. Chachar: Fallow for 3-4 years.
4. Banjar: Uncultivated land.

Expansion and Military Conquests

• Conquest of Kashmir (1586):
  Akbar annexed Kashmir in 1586. Qasim Khan and Raja Bhagwan Das led the Mughal forces. Despite strong resistance from Yaqub Khan and his son, they were defeated.
• Siege of Asirgarh (1601):
  Akbar captured the fort of Asirgarh in 1601 after a prolonged siege, marking the final expansion of his empire.

Relations with Foreign Powers

• Portuguese Relations:
  Akbar’s conquest of Gujarat brought him into contact with the Portuguese. The first Portuguese mission, led by Rudolf Acquaviva and Father Monserrate, arrived at his court in 1580.

Cultural and Architectural Achievements

• Fatehpur Sikri:
  Akbar built his new capital at *Fatehpur Sikri, a masterpiece of Mughal architecture, featuring the *Buland Darwaza and Jama Masjid.
• Agra Fort:
  Akbar also expanded the Agra Fort, another key architectural feat of his reign.
• Jodha Bai’s Palace:
  A blend of Hindu and Mughal styles, this palace in Fatehpur Sikri symbolizes Akbar’s policy of Hindu-Muslim integration.

Key Question: How did Akbar’s architectural projects reflect his vision of a united empire?

Literature and Historiography

• Abul Fazl’s Works:
  Abul Fazl, Akbar’s close confidante, wrote the Ain-i-Akbari and Akbarnama, chronicling Akbar’s reign.
• Other Literary Works:
• Tabakat-i-Akbari by Nizamuddin Ahmad.
• Muntakhab-ul-Tawarikh by Badauni.
• Ramcharitmanas by Tulsidas, a Hindi version of the Ramayana.

End of Akbar’s Life and Legacy

• Revolt of Prince Salim:
  Akbar’s eldest son, Salim (later Jahangir), revolted against him. However, they reconciled before Akbar’s death.
• Akbar’s Death (1605):
  Akbar died of diarrhea in 1605. His two other sons, Murad and danyal died of excessive drinking..

End of Akbar’s Life and Legacy (Continued)

• Revolt of Prince Salim (Later Jahangir):
  Prince Salim, Akbar’s eldest son, grew increasingly rebellious during the final years of Akbar’s reign, frustrated by his father’s prolonged rule. Salim declared himself emperor in Allahabad in 1600. Akbar initially took strong measures to suppress Salim’s rebellion, but they reconciled before Akbar’s death.
• Akbar’s Health Decline and Death (1605):
  Akbar fell gravely ill due to chronic dysentery (or diarrhea), which worsened in late 1605. After weeks of suffering, Akbar died on *October 27, 1605, at the age of 63. He was buried in a grand mausoleum in *Sikandra, near Agra, which he had begun planning and constructing during his lifetime.
• Akbar’s Legacy:
  Akbar left behind a vast, centralized empire stretching from Afghanistan to Bengal. He was known not only for his military conquests but also for his policies of religious tolerance, administrative reforms, and fostering a rich cultural environment. His reign marked the golden age of the Mughal Empire, laying the foundation for future Mughal rulers like Jahangir and Shah Jahan. Key Points in Legacy:
• Akbar’s policy of religious pluralism (Sulah-i-Kul) set the tone for future emperors, influencing relations with non-Muslim subjects.
• His architectural contributions—Fatehpur Sikri, Agra Fort, Akbar’s Tomb in Sikandra—are still admired for their grandeur and blend of Persian, Islamic, and local Indian styles.
• The Mansabdari system became a cornerstone of Mughal administration for future generations.

Ascension to the Throne

• Jahangir, whose real name was Salim, ascended the Mughal throne at Agra in 1605, adopting the title Nuruddin Muhammad Jahangir Padshah Ghazi.
• His reign began with the institution of a Chain of Justice that allowed the common people to appeal directly to the emperor.
• He also proclaimed twelve ordinances, known as Dastur-ul-amal (rules of conduct), aimed at ensuring just administration and governance.

Rebellion of Khusrau

• Shortly after his coronation, Jahangir’s son Khusrau, backed by some nobles, rebelled. The rebellion was suppressed near Jullundar, and Khusrau was placed under semi-confinement in the Fort of Agra.
• A conspiracy in 1607 aimed at assassinating Jahangir and placing Khusrau on the throne was thwarted. Jahangir returned from Lahore, blinded Khusrau, and imprisoned him. Khusrau died in 1622.

Loss of Qandhar (1622)

• Jahangir neglected the defense of Qandhar, which had been captured by Akbar in 1595.
• In 1622, Shah Abbas I of Persia deceitfully laid siege to Qandhar and took possession of the city after a 40-day siege, dealing a significant blow to Mughal defenses in the region.

Nur Jahan’s Influence

• Early Life: Nur Jahan, originally named Mehr-un-Nisa, was the daughter of Mirza Ghiyas Beg, who served under Akbar.
• *Marriage and Influence: Nur Jahan was first married to Sher Afghan (Ali Quli Istajlu), but he fell out of favor with Jahangir and was killed in 1607. She was later brought to the Mughal court and, in 1611, married Jahangir, receiving the title *Nur Jahan.
• *Role in the Empire: Nur Jahan was highly influential, inventing the *attar of roses, and promoting her family’s interests. She dominated court politics and even arranged the marriage of her daughter, Ladli Begum, to Jahangir’s son Shahrayar.

Political Intrigues

• Nur Jahan favored her son-in-law Shahrayar(fifth and youngest son of Jahangir) as Jahangir’s successor. However, Prince Khurram (Shah Jahan) gained prominence after leading successful military campaigns, especially in the Deccan.
• Shah Jahan’s Revolt and Reconciliation:Shah Jahan (Prince Khurram) revolted against his father Jahangir in 1622. There were several reasons for this uprising:
• Nur Jahan’s Political Influence: Nur Jahan had grown very powerful within the Mughal court, and she aimed to secure the succession for her son-in-law Shahrayar , Jahangir’s youngest son. Shah Jahan viewed this as a direct threat to his claim to the throne and his authority as Jahangir’s favored heir.
• Marital and Court Tensions : Nur Jahan married her daughter, Ladli Begum, to Shahrayar in an effort to consolidate power within her family. This further alienated Shah Jahan, who felt sidelined by Nur Jahan’s influence in court.
• Failure in Kandahar : In 1622, Shah Abbas of Persia captured Kandahar, a city that Akbar had originally taken in 1595. Jahangir refused to support Shah Jahan’s demands for military assistance to reclaim the fort, leading to frustration. Shah Jahan was already under pressure because of his failure to defend Kandahar, and this fueled his decision to rebel.

Shah Jahan reconciled with Jahangir by sending his two sons, Dara Shikoh and Aurangzeb, to the Mughal court.

Revolt of Mahabat Khan

• Who was Mahabat Khan?: Mahabat Khan was a loyal Mughal general who became disillusioned with Nur Jahan’s increasing power. He revolted against Jahangir in 1626, briefly capturing the emperor. However, the rebellion was short-lived, and Jahangir was restored to power.

Military Campaigns

uprising of the Bara Bhuiyans:

Bengal Rebellion – Bara Bhuiyans Uprising:

The Bara Bhuiyans were a confederation of powerful zamindars (landowners) in Bengal. During Jahangir’s rule, they were led by a notable leader, *Narayanganj Usman, who resisted the Mughal authority and control in the Bengal region. The term *Bara Bhuiyans means “Twelve Chiefs,”.

The Uprising:

In response to the defiance of the *Bara Bhuiyans, *Jahangir appointed Islam Khan, a competent Mughal general, as the Subedar (governor) of Bengal in 1608. Islam Khan’s primary mission was to bring Bengal firmly under Mughal control and suppress the rebellion.

1. *Campaign Against Bara Bhuiyans: In 1612, Islam Khan launched a military campaign against the rebellious zamindars. The key leader of the Bhuiyans, *Narayanganj Usman, put up a strong resistance. Defeat of Narayanganj Usman: Despite their formidable opposition, the Bhuiyans were ultimately defeated. Usman was killed in battle, marking the end of organized resistance from the Bhuiyan zamindars. The
2. Subjugation of Mewar: After the defeat of Rana Pratap Singh, his son Amar Singh became the new ruler of Mewar. In 1613, Jahangir sent his son Khurram (later Shah Jahan) to subdue Amar Singh. Amar Singh acknowledged Mughal suzerainty, provided 1,000 horses as tribute, and sent his son, Karan, to the Mughal court as a token of loyalty.
3. *Deccan Campaign: Malik Ambar, an Abyssinian who rose to prominence in Ahmadnagar, recaptured the Deccan from the Mughals in 1610. However, in 1616, Prince Khurram was assigned to lead the Mughal forces in the Deccan. Khurram’s success in capturing Ahmadnagar earned him the title *Shah Jahan.
4. Capture of Kangra (1619): The crowning military achievement of Jahangir’s reign was the capture of the Kangra Fort in Punjab, which was a strategic victory for the Mughals.

Foreign Relations

1. Portuguese Relations: Jahangir’s relations with the Portuguese deteriorated in 1613 when they captured and plundered four imperial ships. In response, Jahangir attacked their settlement at Daman, leading to humiliation for the Portuguese.
2. Relations with the English: While the Portuguese lost favor, the English gained the emperor’s trust. William Hawkins, William Edwards, and Sir Thomas Roe were notable English envoys to the Mughal court. Hawkins was even granted permission to trade and establish a factory at Surat.

Art, Architecture, and Culture

1. *Jahangir’s Love for Art: Jahangir’s deep love for painting earned him the title *Prince of Artists. He had a keen eye for details and encouraged portraiture and nature studies. His reign marked a golden era for Mughal miniature painting.
2. *Literature: Jahangir personally wrote his memoirs, *Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri, which remains an important historical document detailing his reign and personal reflections.
3. Architecture: Although Jahangir was not as prolific a builder as his father Akbar or son Shah Jahan, notable architectural contributions include the construction of his own mausoleum in Lahore, built by his widow, Nur Jahan.

Religious Beliefs

• Jahangir was relatively indifferent toward religious orthodoxy, continuing Akbar’s policy of Sulah-i-Kul (peace with all). This tolerance extended to both Hindus and Muslims, promoting religious harmony in his empire.

End of Jahangir’s Reign

• Jahangir’s excessive consumption of alcohol and opium weakened his health. He died in October 1627.
• His death led to a power struggle between his sons, but ultimately, Shah Jahan emerged victorious and succeeded him.

Humayun ascended the throne of Delhi on December 30, 1530, just days after his father Babur’s death. His reign, however, was fraught with challenges, particularly from his brothers and rivals like Kamran Mirza, who aspired to control parts of the empire. Kamran, his half-brother, became the governor of Kabul and Lahore and was one of Humayun’s most dangerous adversaries.

Despite facing internal challenges, Humayun’s first military expedition was against Sultan Mahmud Lodi in 1532, whose ambition to recover the Afghan throne still threatened the Mughal Empire. Humayun’s victory in the Battle of Dadrah (1532) solidified his position in the east. However, this victory was short-lived, as he soon had to contend with Bahadur Shah, the powerful ruler of Gujarat.

Sher Shah Suri (1472–1545)

Sher Shah Suri, born as Farid Khan in 1472 at Bajwara, Hoshiarpur, emerged as Humayun’s most formidable adversary. After being neglected by his father, Hasan Khan, Farid Khan moved to Jaunpur, where he learned Persian and Arabic. It was in Jaunpur that he caught the attention of Jamal Khan, the governor of the region. Afterward, he joined the service of Bahar Khan Lohani, the ruler of Bihar, in 1522. Here, he earned the title of Sher Khan after killing a tiger.

In 1527, Sher Khan briefly served under Babur after Bahar Khan’s jealousy-driven nobles ousted him. However, by 1528, he left Mughal service to resume his career in Bihar. Following Bahar Khan’s death, Sher Khan became the de facto ruler of Bihar under the tutelage of Bahar Khan’s widow, Dadu Bibi, who appointed him deputy governor. After her death in 1529, Sher Khan consolidated power.

Humayun’s Campaigns against Sher Shah

In 1531, Humayun marched against Sher Khan, but the latter evaded conflict through timely submission. However, by 1537, Sher Khan had already gained control over Bihar and Chunar, causing alarm for Humayun. Despite being advised by Yusuf Khalil to focus on the conquest of Gaur first, Humayun undertook the Siege of Chunar. Realizing the futility, Humayun sought peace with Sher Khan and turned his attention to Gaur, which Sher Khan allowed him to capture.

While Humayun celebrated his success in Gaur, Sher Khan rapidly expanded his control between Delhi and Bihar. In June 1539, Sher Khan decisively defeated Humayun in the Battle of Chausa. After this victory, Sher Khan assumed the title of Sher Shah Suri. Humayun suffered another major defeat in the Battle of Qanauj (May 1540) at the hands of Sher Shah, costing him his throne and sending him into exile.

Humayun’s Exile and Return

After his defeat, Humayun was abandoned by Kamran, who refused to provide military support. Humayun sought refuge with Rana Prasad of Umerkot, where Akbar was born to Hamida Banu Begum on 23 November 1542. Eventually, Humayun fled to Persia, converting to Shia Islam to gain the favor of Shah Tahmasp I. With Persian support, Humayun reclaimed Kabul and defeated his rebellious brother Kamran, whom he later blinded.

Humayun’s fortunes changed when Sher Shah’s son, Islam Shah died in 1554 and Firuz, the son of Islam Shah, was killed by his uncle, Muhammad Adil Shah. Taking advantage of the internal strife, Humayun re-entered India, capturing Lahore in 1555 and reclaiming his capital, Delhi, by July 1555. However, his reign was cut short when he died on January 24, 1556, after falling from a staircase.

Sher Shah Suri’s Reign (1540–1545)

After defeating Humayun, Sher Shah became the undisputed ruler of northern India. His administrative reforms and military strategies set the foundation for Mughal governance, and he is often regarded as the forerunner of Akbar.

Sher Shah’s administration divided his empire into 47 sarkars (Divisions), each headed by a Shiqdar (military head) and a Munsif (judicial head). He introduced a system of land revenue collection (1/3rd of produce) based on detailed surveys and fixed rates per unit of land. His currency reforms included the introduction of a silver Tanka weighing 178 grains, which became the standard for the subcontinent for centuries. He also issued gold coins and a copper coin for small transactions.

Sher Shah is credited with implementing Alauddin Khilji’s military reforms, such as transferring officers every two to three years to prevent the accumulation of local power. He also introduced the concept of local police responsibility, where local chiefs were held accountable for crimes in their areas, ensuring effective law enforcement.

Sher Shah’s Legacy

Sher Shah is perhaps best remembered for his infrastructural achievements, such as building the Grand Trunk Road, which stretched from Sonargaon in Bengal to Rohtas in Punjab. He built several forts, including Rohtas Fort (near present-day Jhelum in Pakistan), with 50,000 troops to control the Ghakkars. Sher Shah also built Purana Qila in Delhi on the banks of the Yamuna, as well as his grand mausoleum in Sasaram, completed in 1545.

Sher Shah’s reign ended with his accidental death during the Siege of Kalinjar on May 22, 1545, due to the explosion of gunpowder. He was succeeded by his son, Islam Shah (Jalal Khan), whose reign was marked by internal conflicts.

Humayun’s Return and Final Victory

Taking advantage of the instability following Sher Shah’s death, Humayun returned to India with Persian support. By 1555, he had recaptured Lahore and Delhi. Despite his eventual success, his return to power was short-lived, as he died just six months later on January 24, 1556, leaving his empire to his son Akbar.

Babur’s Early Life:

• Babur was born on February 24, 1483, in Andijan, the capital of Farghana.
• He was the son of Umar Sheikh Mirza, who was the ruler of Farghana.
• Babur’s lineage was significant:
• He descended from Timur (Tamerlane), a Chaghtai Turk on his father’s side.
• On his mother’s side, he was descended from Genghis Khan, a Mongol ruler.
• Contrary to some beliefs, Babur did not consider himself a Mughal; he referred to himself as a Turk.
• At the young age of 11, upon his father’s death in 1494, Babur became the ruler of Farghana.

Struggles for Samarkand and Farghana:

• In 1496, Babur led his first expedition to Samarkand, but he was defeated.
• However, in 1497, he made another attempt and successfully captured Samarkand.
• Unfortunately, while he was away in Samarkand, a revolt erupted in his homeland, Farghana.
• Babur rushed to suppress the rebellion, but in doing so, he lost control of both Farghana and Samarkand.

Babur’s Occupation of Kabul:

• After losing his territory, Babur set out to explore new opportunities. In 1504, he crossed the Hindu Kush mountains and captured Kabul, where he declared himself Padshah (King).

Babur’s Campaigns in Indo-Pakistan:

• Babur had made several unsuccessful attempts to establish his authority in India, but his fourth expedition to Indo-Pakistan in 1524 proved to be more significant.
• Daulat Khan Lodi, the governor of Punjab, invited Babur to invade the territory because of his strained relationship with Sultan Ibrahim Lodi. Daulat Khan expected to be rewarded with the vice-royalty of the region.
• However, after Babur occupied several cities, Daulat Khan was offered only two districts and subsequently turned against Babur.

Battle of Panipat (1526):

• Babur led his sixth expedition to India and faced Ibrahim Lodi in the First Battle of Panipat on April 21, 1526.
• The battle took place in the historic fields of Panipat (modern-day Haryana, India).
• Ibrahim Lodi was defeated and killed in the battle, which marked the end of the Delhi Sultanate (1206-1526) and the beginning of the Mughal Empire in the Indo-Pakistan region.

Further Battles and Conflict with Rana Sanga:

• In 1527, Babur faced Rana Sanga of Mewar at the Battle of Khanwa.
• Babur, who was fond of wine, famously gave it up during this period as a gesture of discipline for the battle.

Babur as an Author:

• Babur’s autobiography, known as Tuzk-i-Babur (or Baburnama), is considered a masterpiece of its kind, providing a detailed account of his life, campaigns, and the political landscape of the time.
• Baburnama was originally written in Turkish and later translated into Persian during the reign of Akbar by Abdur Rahim Khan-i-Khanan.
• This earned Babur the title of “Prince of Autobiographers” due to his candid and articulate narration of his life and conquests.

Jalaluddin Khalji (1290-1296)

• Ascension:

 Jalaluddin Khalji ascended the throne of Delhi in 1290 at the age of 75, marking the beginning of the Khilji Dynasty. His rule followed the end of the Mamluk Dynasty.

• Military Campaigns:

Made two unsuccessful attempts to recapture the fort of Ranthambor, demonstrating the challenges he faced in consolidating power.

• Religious and Political Strictness:

Displayed extreme strictness in dealing with Sidi Maula, a disciple of Fariduddin Ganj Shakar of Pakpattan, highlighting his intolerance for dissent and potential threats.

• Mongol Invasion:

In 1292, Jalaluddin faced a Mongol invasion led by Abdullah. After the conflict, many Mongols, including one Ulghu Khan, chose to stay in India, converted to Islam, and were historically referred to as “New Muslims.”

• Alauddin Khalji’s Rise:

Jalaluddin appointed his nephew and son-in-law, Alauddin Khalji, as the governor of Kara and Oudh. Alauddin’s successful campaign against the ruler of Deogir increased his power and ambition.

In 1296, Alauddin betrayed and murdered Jalaluddin in Deccan, marking the end of Jalaluddin’s reign and the start of Alauddin’s.

 Alauddin Khalji (1296-1316)

• Ascension and Mongol Threat:

Ascended the throne in 1296. The persistent Mongol threat led him to maintain a large standing army, necessitating heavy taxation such as house tax and grazing tax to fund the military.

• Malik Kafur:

Malik Kafur was a slave captured in the Gujarat campaign, who rose to prominence under Alauddin’s reign. He became a trusted general and eventually, a powerful figure in the empire.

• Military Campaigns:
• Conquest of Chittor: Around 1303, Alauddin led his army against Chittor, a campaign shrouded in legend due to the story of Queen Padmini.
• Deccan Campaigns: The conquest of Deccan was one of Alauddin’s most notable achievements, expanding the Delhi Sultanate into southern India.

• Administrative and Economic Reforms:
• Ulema and State Separation: Alauddin was the first Sultan to declare that religious scholars (ulema) would not interfere in state matters, a response to revolts and insurrections.
• Abolishment of Private Property: Alauddin abolished private property to prevent rebellions. Chronicler Ziauddin Barani noted that people were so preoccupied with basic survival that rebellion became unthinkable.
• Land Survey System: Introduced the first system of land survey in the subcontinent, later refined by rulers like Sher Shah Suri and Akbar.
• Huliah System: This military reform involved the detailed registration and description of soldiers to prevent corruption and fraud.
• Price Control and Market Reforms:
• Imposed strict price controls to manage the economy and sustain the large army.
• Wheat was priced at 7.5 jitals per maund; a first-grade horse at 120 tankas.
• Introduced rationing and appointed two key market officers: Shahana-i-Mandi (superintendent of grain market) and Diwan-i-Riyasat (in charge of cloth and general market).

• Patronage of Arts and Architecture:
• Alai Darwaza: A significant architectural contribution in Delhi.
• City of Siri: Another notable creation of his reign.
• Cultural Patronage: Poets like Amir Khusrau and Sufi saint Shaikh Nizamuddin Auliya flourished during his reign.

• Downfall and Death:
• Towards the end of his reign, Alauddin’s health deteriorated, and he became heavily influenced by his minister Malik Kafur.
• Death: Alauddin died in 1316, after ruling for 20 years. His death marked the decline of the Khilji dynasty.

Malik Kafur and the Fall of the Khilji Dynasty (1316-1320)

• Power Struggle:

• Malik Kafur, exploiting Alauddin’s declining health, imprisoned and blinded Alauddin’s sons, Khizr Khan and Shadi Khan, and nominated Alauddin’s infant son, Shihabuddin, as the successor.
• Kafur became regent for the infant Sultan, married Alauddin’s widow, and consolidated power.

 Death of Malik Kafur: Kafur was eventually assassinated by a soldier, leading to the rise of Mubarak Khan, Alauddin’s third son.

Mubarak Shah (1316-1320):

• Blinded his infant brother Shihabuddin and ascended the throne in 1316.

  • His rule was short-lived, ending with his murder by Khusrau Khan, the governor of Deccan, in 1320.

 Khusrau Khan’s Brief Reign:

• End of Khilji Dynasty: Ghazi Malik, the governor of Punjab, rebelled against Khusrau Khan, defeated him, and executed him in 1320. Ghazi Malik ascended the throne as Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq, founding the Tughlaq Dynasty, bringing an end to the Khilji Dynasty.

The Lodi dynasty was the last dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate, founded by Bahlol Lodi in 1451 after the abdication of the last Sayyid ruler, Alam Shah. Here’s a detailed account of the Lodi dynasty, including its key figures and events, leading to the establishment of the Mughal Empire:

1. Bahlol Lodi (1451-1489)

• Foundation of the Dynasty: Alam Shah, the last ruler of the Sayyid dynasty, abdicated the throne in favor of Bahlol Lodi in 1451, citing his own incompetence. Bahlol Lodi was a powerful Afghan noble who had built up significant influence in the Punjab region.
• Consolidation of Power: Upon ascending the throne, Bahlol Lodi faced the challenge of unifying a fragmented Delhi Sultanate. He appointed his son, Barbak Shah, as the governor of Jaunpur, a significant provincial center.
• Military Campaigns: Bahlol Lodi spent much of his reign consolidating his power and extending his influence over northern India. He successfully captured and retained control over key regions, including Punjab and Delhi.
• Death and Succession: Bahlol Lodi died in 1489 after a reign of approximately 38 years. His death led to the ascension of his son, Nizam Khan, who took the throne under the title Sikandar Lodi.

2. Sikandar Lodi (1489-1517)

• Ascension to the Throne: Sikandar Lodi, whose real name was Nizam Khan, succeeded his father in 1489. His ascension was initially challenged by his brother, Barbak Shah, the governor of Jaunpur. However, Sikandar successfully retained control, consolidating his rule over the Sultanate.
• Administrative and Cultural Reforms: Sikandar Lodi is remembered as a capable administrator and a patron of arts and learning. He was a poet himself and composed poetry under the pen name “Gul Rukh.” He ordered the translation of a Sanskrit medical text into Persian, highlighting his interest in knowledge and culture.
• Relocation of Capital: One of Sikandar Lodi’s significant actions was the relocation of the capital from Delhi to Agra. This move was strategic, as it allowed him better control over central India and facilitated the expansion of his influence.
• Military Campaigns: Sikandar Lodi undertook several military campaigns to subjugate the chiefs of central India and expand his territory. His reign is marked by relative stability and consolidation of the Sultanate’s power.
• Death: Sikandar Lodi died in 1517 after a successful reign of 28 years, leaving the throne to his son, Ibrahim Lodi.

3. Ibrahim Lodi (1517-1526)

• Challenges to Rule: Ibrahim Lodi faced immediate challenges to his rule, most notably from his younger brother, Jalal Khan. This familial conflict weakened the central authority and created opportunities for rebellion among the nobles.
• Conflict with Nobles: Ibrahim Lodi was wary of the power of the Afghan nobles and sought to centralize authority by imprisoning and dismissing several of them. This heavy-handed approach led to widespread resentment and a series of rebellions across the Sultanate.
• Rebellion and Babur’s Invasion: Among the discontented nobles was Daulat Khan Lodi, the governor of Punjab. Feeling threatened by Ibrahim’s policies, Daulat Khan invited Babur, the ruler of Kabul, to invade India. Babur had long harbored ambitions of conquering the rich lands of India and accepted the invitation.
• Battle of Panipat (1526): In 1526, Babur led an expedition into India, culminating in the First Battle of Panipat. Babur’s forces, although outnumbered, were better equipped and strategically superior. Ibrahim Lodi was killed in the battle, marking the end of the Lodi dynasty and the Delhi Sultanate, and paving the way for the establishment of the Mughal Empire under Babur.

The Sayyid dynasty (1414-1451) was an important but relatively short-lived dynasty in the history of the Delhi Sultanate. It was founded by Khizr Khan, who laid the foundation for this new era in the Sultanate’s history following the decline of the Tughlaq dynasty. The Sayyid dynasty played a transitional role in the history of the Delhi Sultanate, bridging the gap between the Tughlaqs and the Lodis.

Founding of the Sayyid Dynasty

Khizr Khan’s Rise to Power (1414):
Khizr Khan, the founder of the Sayyid dynasty, was originally the governor of Multan under the Tughlaq dynasty. His rise to prominence began during the time of Amir Timur’s (Tamerlane) invasion of India in 1398. Timur, after sacking Delhi and decimating the remnants of the Tughlaq dynasty, appointed Khizr Khan as the Viceroy of India.

Though Timur departed from India, leaving the region in disarray, Khizr Khan remained in power as his representative. It’s important to note that Khizr Khan did not claim the title of Sultan or King but instead professed to be a representative or Viceroy of Timur’s son, Shahrukh, who ruled over the Timurid Empire after Timur’s death. The Sayyid dynasty is named as such because Khizr Khan claimed to be a descendant of the Prophet Muhammad (PBUH), although this claim lacks strong historical evidence.

In 1414, Khizr Khan marched on Delhi, capturing the city and marking the beginning of the Sayyid dynasty.

Khizr Khan’s Reign (1414-1421)

Khizr Khan’s reign was marked by efforts to consolidate his control over the fragmented Delhi Sultanate. His authority, however, was limited mostly to the region around Delhi, and he faced constant challenges from rebellious nobles and regional rulers.

Key Conflicts and Challenges:

1. Battle against Mallu Iqbal Khan: Mallu Iqbal Khan was a powerful noble and former governor who controlled much of the region around Delhi. He declared independence during the final years of the Tughlaq dynasty. Khizr Khan engaged him in battle and ultimately defeated him, bringing the region back under his control.
2. Campaigns against the Rajputs and Other Local Rulers: Khizr Khan also had to deal with resistance from Rajput chiefs in regions like Mewat and the Doab. These local rulers sought to assert their independence in the power vacuum left by the Tughlaqs, but Khizr Khan conducted military campaigns to bring them under his authority.

Death and Succession:
Khizr Khan ruled until his death in 1421. His death marked the end of his efforts to maintain the fragile unity of the Sultanate, and he was succeeded by his son, Mubarak Shah.

Mubarak Shah (1421-1434)

Mubarak Shah, Khizr Khan’s son, ascended to the throne in 1421. His reign was marked by numerous internal and external challenges, and he struggled to maintain the authority of the Sayyid dynasty.

Key Conflicts and Challenges:

2. Internal Strife: Mubarak Shah also faced internal dissent from his own nobles, who were dissatisfied with his rule. This dissatisfaction culminated in Mubarak Shah’s assassination in 1434. He was killed by a noble named Sarwar-ul-Mulk, who had conspired with other disaffected nobles to eliminate the Sultan.

Muhammad Shah (1434-1445)

Following Mubarak Shah’s assassination, his nephew Muhammad Shah was placed on the throne in 1434. Muhammad Shah’s reign was characterized by further instability and decline.

Key Conflicts and Challenges:

1. Continued Rebellions: Like his predecessors, Muhammad Shah faced rebellions from regional governors and nobles who sought to assert their independence. His reign was marked by a continuous struggle to maintain control over the increasingly fragmented Sultanate.
2. The Rise of Bahlol Lodi: During Muhammad Shah’s reign, Bahlol Lodi, an Afghan noble who had been appointed governor of Sirhind, began to emerge as a significant power. Bahlol Lodi skillfully maneuvered through the political landscape, gradually increasing his influence while outwardly remaining loyal to the Sayyid dynasty.

Alam Shah (1445-1451): The Last Sayyid Ruler

After Muhammad Shah’s death in 1445, Alam Shah, the last ruler of the Sayyid dynasty, ascended to the throne. Alam Shah was a weak ruler who failed to maintain control over the Sultanate.

Key Events:

1. Decline of Authority: During Alam Shah’s reign, the authority of the Delhi Sultanate continued to erode. Regional governors and nobles became increasingly autonomous, and Alam Shah’s control was limited to the city of Delhi.
2. Voluntary Abdication: In 1451, recognizing his inability to rule effectively, Alam Shah voluntarily abdicated the throne in favor of Bahlol Lodi. Alam Shah retired to Badaun, where he spent the remainder of his life.

Transition to the Lodi Dynasty

The abdication of Alam Shah in 1451 marked the end of the Sayyid dynasty and the beginning of the Lodi dynasty. Bahlol Lodi, who had already established himself as the most powerful noble in the Sultanate, ascended the throne and became the first ruler of the Lodi dynasty. This transition marked the final phase of the Delhi Sultanate before the establishment of the Mughal Empire.